Applications & Pathways
The Role of Lock-in Mechanisms in Transition Processes: The Case of Energy for Road Transport
Jul 2015
Publication
This paper revisits the theoretical concepts of lock-in mechanisms to analyse transition processes in energy production and road transportation in the Nordic countries focussing on three technology platforms: advanced biofuels e-mobility and hydrogen and fuel cell electrical vehicles. The paper is based on a comparative analysis of case studies.<br/>The main lock-in mechanisms analysed are learning effects economies of scale economies of scope network externalities informational increasing returns technological interrelatedness collective action institutional learning effects and the differentiation of power.<br/>We show that very different path dependencies have been reinforced by the lock-in mechanisms. Hence the characteristics of existing regimes set the preconditions for the development of new transition pathways. The incumbent socio-technical regime is not just fossil-based but may also include mature niches specialised in the exploitation of renewable sources. This implies a need to distinguish between lock-in mechanisms favouring the old fossil-based regime well-established (mature) renewable energy niches or new pathways.
The Importance of Economies of Scale, Transport Costs and Demand Patterns in Optimising Hydrogen Fuelling Infrastructure: An Exploration with SHIPMod (Spatial Hydrogen Infrastructure Planning Model)
Jul 2013
Publication
Hydrogen is widely recognised as an important option for future road transportation but a widespread infrastructure must be developed if the potential for hydrogen is to be achieved. This paper and related appendices which can be downloaded as Supplementary material present a mixed-integer linear programming model (called SHIPMod) that optimises a hydrogen supply chains for scenarios of hydrogen fuel demand in the UK including the spatial arrangement of carbon capture and storage infrastructure. In addition to presenting a number of improvements on past practice in the literature the paper focuses attention on the importance of assumptions regarding hydrogen demand. The paper draws on socio-economic data to develop a spatially detailed scenario of possible hydrogen demand. The paper then shows that assumptions about the level and spatial dispersion of hydrogen demand have a significant impact on costs and on the choice of hydrogen production technologies and distribution mechanisms.
Hydrogen-diesel Fuel Co-combustion Strategies in Light Duty and Heavy Duty CI Engines
Apr 2018
Publication
The co-combustion of diesel fuel with H2 presents a promising route to reduce the adverse effects of diesel engine exhaust pollutants on the environment and human health. This paper presents the results of H2-diesel co-combustion experiments carried out on two different research facilities a light duty and a heavy duty diesel engine. For both engines H2 was supplied to the engine intake manifold and aspirated with the intake air. H2 concentrations of up to 20% vol/vol and 8% vol/vol were tested in the light duty and heavy duty engines respectively. Exhaust gas circulation (EGR) was also utilised for some of the tests to control exhaust NOx emissions.<br/>The results showed NOx emissions increase with increasing H2 in the case of the light duty engine however in contrast for the heavy duty engine NOx emissions were stable/reduced slightly with H2 attributable to lower in-cylinder gas temperatures during diffusion-controlled combustion. CO and particulate emissions were observed to reduce as the intake H2 was increased. For the light duty H2 was observed to auto-ignite intermittently before diesel fuel injection had started when the intake H2 concentration was 20% vol/vol. A similar effect was observed in the heavy duty engine at just over 8% H2 concentration.
Assessment of Hydrogen Quality Dispensed for Hydrogen Refuelling Stations in Europe
Dec 2020
Publication
The fuel quality of hydrogen dispensed from 10 refuelling stations in Europe was assessed. Representative sampling was conducted from the nozzle by use of a sampling adapter allowing to bleed sample gas in parallel while refuelling an FCEV. Samples were split off and distributed to four laboratories for analysis in accordance with ISO 14687 and SAE J2719. The results indicated some inconsistencies between the laboratories but were still conclusive. The fuel quality was generally good. Elevated nitrogen concentrations were detected in two samples but not in violation with the new 300 μmol/mol tolerance limit. Four samples showed water concentrations higher than the 5 μmol/mol tolerance limit estimated by at least one laboratory. The results were ambiguous: none of the four samples showed all laboratories in agreement with the violation. One laboratory reported an elevated oxygen concentration that was not corroborated by the other two laboratories and thus considered an outlier.
Sizing, Optimization, and Financial Analysis of a Green Hydrogen Refueling Station in Remote Regions
Jan 2022
Publication
Hydrogen (H2 ) can be a promising energy carrier for decarbonizing the economy and especially the transport sector which is considered as one of the sectors with high carbon emissions due to the extensive use of fossil fuels. H2 is a nontoxic energy carrier that could replace fossil fuels. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) can decrease air pollution and reduce greenhouse gases when H2 is produced from Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and at the same time being accessible through a widespread network of Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRSs). In this study both the sizing of the equipment and financial analysis were performed for an HRS supplied with H2 from the excess electrical energy of a 10 MW wind park. The aim was to determine the optimum configuration of an HRS under the investigation of six different scenarios with various numbers of FCEVs and monthly demands as well as ascertaining the economic viability of each examined scenario. The effect of the number of vehicles that the installation can refuel to balance the initial cost of the investment and the fuel cost in remote regions was investigated. The results showed that a wind-powered HRS could be a viable solution when sized appropriately and H2 can be used as a storage mean for the rejected wind energy. It was concluded that scenarios with low FCEVs penetration have low economic performance since the payback period presented significantly high values.
Changing the Fate of Fuel Cell Vehicles: Can lessons be Learnt from Tesla Motors?
Dec 2014
Publication
Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) are a disruptive innovation and are currently looking towards niche market entry. However commercialisation has been unsuccessful thus far and there is a limited amount of literature that can guide their market entry. In this paper a historical case study is undertaken which looks at Tesla Motors high-end encroachment market entry strategy. FCVs have been compared to Tesla vehicles due to their similarities; both are disruptive innovations both are high cost and both are zero emission vehicles. Therefore this paper looks at what can be learned form Tesla Motors successful market entry strategy and proposes a market entry strategy for FCVs. It was found that FCVs need to enact a paradigm shift from their current market entry strategy to one of high-end encroachment. When this has been achieved FCVs will have greater potential for market penetration.
Recent Developments in Pd-CeO2 Nano-composite Electrocatalysts for Anodic Reactions in Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Jan 2022
Publication
In 2016 for the first time a polymer electrolyte fuel cell free of Pt electrocatalysts was shown to deliver more than 0.5 W cm-2 of peak power density from H2 and air (CO2 free). This was achieved with a silver-based oxygen reduction (ORR) cathode and a Pd-CeO2 hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) anodic electrocatalyst. The poor kinetics of the HOR under alkaline conditions is a considerable challenge to Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (AEMFC) development as high Pt loadings are still required to achieve reasonable performance. Previously the ameliorative combination of Pd and CeO2 nanocomposites has been exploited mostly in heterogeneous catalysis where the positive interaction is well documented. Carbon supported PdCeO2 HOR catalysts have now been prepared by different synthetic techniques and employed in AEMFCs as alternative to Pt and PtRu standards. Important research has also been recently reported delving into the origin of the HOR enhancement on Pd-CeO2. Such work has highlighted the importance of the bifunctional mechanism of the HOR at high pHs. Carefully prepared nano-structures of Pd and CeO2 that promote the formation of the Pd-O-Ce interface provide optimal binding of both Had and OHad species aspects which are crucial for enhanced HOR kinetics. This review paper discusses the recent advances in Pd-CeO2 electrocatalysts for AEMFC anodes.
Integration of Open Slag Bath Furnace with Direct Reduction Reactors for New‐Generation Steelmaking
Jan 2022
Publication
The present paper illustrates an innovative steel processing route developed by employing hydrogen direct reduced pellets and an open slag bath furnace. The paper illustrates the direct reduction reactor employing hydrogen as reductant on an industrial scale. The solution allows for the production of steel from blast furnace pellets transformed in the direct reduction reactor. The reduced pellets are then melted in open slag bath furnaces allowing carburization for further refining. The proposed solution is clean for the decarbonization of the steel industry. The kinetic chemical and thermodynamic issues are detailed with particular attention paid to the slag conditions. The proposed solution is also supported by the economic evaluation compared to traditional routes.
Developing a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle (HFCV) Energy Consumption Model for Transportation Applications
Jan 2022
Publication
This paper presents a simple hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) energy consumption model. Simple fuel/energy consumption models have been developed and employed to estimate the energy and environmental impacts of various transportation projects for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). However there are few published results on HFCV energy models that can be simply implemented in transportation applications. The proposed HFCV energy model computes instantaneous energy consumption utilizing instantaneous vehicle speed acceleration and roadway grade as input variables. The mode accurately estimates energy consumption generating errors of 0.86% and 2.17% relative to laboratory data for the fuel cell estimation and the total energy estimation respectively. Furthermore this work validated the proposed model against independent data and found that the new model accurately estimated the energy consumption producing an error of 1.9% and 1.0% relative to empirical data for the fuel cell and the total energy estimation respectively. The results demonstrate that transportation engineers policy makers automakers and environmental engineers can use the proposed model to evaluate the energy consumption effects of transportation projects and connected and automated vehicle (CAV) transportation applications within microscopic traffic simulation models.
Experimental Validation of Hydrogen Fuel−Cell and Battery−Based Hybrid Drive without DC−−DC for Light Scooter under Two Typical Driving Cycles
Dec 2021
Publication
Faced with key obstacles such as the short driving range long charging time and limited volume allowance of battery−−powered electric light scooters in Asian cities the aim of this study is to present a passive fuel cell/battery hybrid system without DC−−DC to ensure a compact volume and low cost. A novel topology structure of the passive fuel cell/battery power system for the electric light scooter is proposed and the passive power system runs only on hydrogen. The power performance and efficiency of the passive power system are evaluated by a self−developed test bench before installation into the scooters. The results of this study reveal that the characteristics of stable power output quick response and the average efficiency are as high as 88% during the Shanghainese urban driving cycle and 89.5% during the Chinese standard driving cycle. The results pre‐ sent the possibility that this passive fuel cell/battery hybrid powertrain system without DC−DC is practical for commercial scooters.
Effect of Precooled Inlet Gas Temperature and Mass flow Rate on Final State of Charge During Hydrogen Vehicle Refueling
Mar 2015
Publication
Short refuelling time and high final state of charge are among the main hydrogen car user's requirements. To meet these requirements without exceeding the tank materials safety limits hydrogen precooling is needed. Filling experiments with different inlet gas temperatures and mass flow rates have been executed using two different types of on-board tanks (type 3 and 4). State of charge has a strong dependency on the inlet gas temperature. This dependency is more visible for type 4 tanks. Lowest precooling temperature (−40 °C) is not always required in order to meet user's requirements so energy savings can be achieved if the initial conditions of the tank are correctly identified. The results of the experiments performed have been compared with the SAE J2601 look-up tables for non-communication fillings. A big safety margin has been observed in these tables. Refuelling could be performed faster and with less demanding precooling requirements if the initial conditions and the configuration of the hydrogen storage system are well known.
Sustainable Power Supply Solutions for Off-Grid Base Stations
Sep 2015
Publication
The telecommunication sector plays a significant role in shaping the global economy and the way people share information and knowledge. At present the telecommunication sector is liable for its energy consumption and the amount of emissions it emits in the environment. In the context of off-grid telecommunication applications off-grid base stations (BSs) are commonly used due to their ability to provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. However in the past the off-grid BSs usually relied on emission-intensive power supply solutions such as diesel generators. In this review paper various types of solutions (including in particular the sustainable solutions) for powering BSs are discussed. The key aspects in designing an ideal power supply solution are reviewed and these mainly include the pre-feasibility study and the thermal management of BSs which comprise heating and cooling of the BS shelter/cabinets and BS electronic equipment and power supply components. The sizing and optimization approaches used to design the BSs’ power supply systems as well as the operational and control strategies adopted to manage the power supply systems are also reviewed in this paper.
Hydrogen-powered Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems – Current State and Development
Mar 2020
Publication
The work is dedicated to the possibility of using hydrogen-powered vehicles in urban transport systems. Due to the need to look for alternative solutions for vehicles with conventional drive in cities hydrogen-powered cars are one of the practical possibilities of realizing the sustainable transport assumptions and independence from oil imports - which is one of the main priorities of the European Union. This paper presents a literature analysis the analysis of the current state and development of use hydrogen-powered vehicles in the world.<br/>The article refers to the possibilities of use hydrogen-vehicles in different ways of mobility: individual vehicles taxis and shared mobility. In addition the author focused on showing the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen-powered vehicles in urban transport systems.
Soft-linking of a Behavioral Model for Transport with Energy System Cost optimization Applied to Hydrogen in EU
Sep 2019
Publication
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) currently have the challenge of high CAPEX mainly associated to the fuel cell. This study investigates strategies to promote FCEV deployment and overcome this initial high cost by combining a detailed simulation model of the passenger transport sector with an energy system model. The focus is on an energy system with 95% CO2 reduction by 2050. Soft-linking by taking the powertrain shares by country from the simulation model is preferred because it considers aspects such as car performance reliability and safety while keeping the cost optimization to evaluate the impact on the rest of the system. This caused a 14% increase in total cost of car ownership compared to the cost before soft-linking. Gas reforming combined with CO2 storage can provide a low-cost hydrogen source for FCEV in the first years of deployment. Once a lower CAPEX for FCEV is achieved a higher hydrogen cost from electrolysis can be afforded. The policy with the largest impact on FCEV was a purchase subsidy of 5 k€ per vehicle in the 2030–2034 period resulting in 24.3 million FCEV (on top of 67 million without policy) sold up to 2050 with total subsidies of 84 bln€. 5 bln€ of R&D incentives in the 2020–2024 period increased the cumulative sales up to 2050 by 10.5 million FCEV. Combining these two policies with infrastructure and fuel subsidies for 2030–2034 can result in 76 million FCEV on the road by 2050 representing more than 25% of the total car stock. Country specific incentives split of demand by distance or shift across modes of transport were not included in this study.
Challenges in the Use of Hydrogen for Maritime Applications
Jan 2021
Publication
Maritime shipping is a key factor that enables the global economy however the pressure it exerts on the environment is increasing rapidly. In order to reduce the emissions of harmful greenhouse gasses the search is on for alternative fuels for the maritime shipping industry. In this work the usefulness of hydrogen and hydrogen carriers is being investigated as a fuel for sea going ships. Due to the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen under standard conditions the need for efficient storage of this fuel is high. Key processes in the use of hydrogen are discussed starting with the production of hydrogen from fossil and renewable sources. The focus of this review is different storage methods and in this work we discuss the storage of hydrogen at high pressure in liquefied form at cryogenic temperatures and bound to liquid or solid-state carriers. In this work a theoretical introduction to different hydrogen storage methods precedes an analysis of the energy-efficiency and practical storage density of the carriers. In the final section the major challenges and hurdles for the development of hydrogen storage for the maritime industry are discussed. The most likely challenges will be the development of a new bunkering infrastructure and suitable monitoring of the safety to ensure safe operation of these hydrogen carriers on board the ship.
HYDRIDE4MOBILITY: An EU HORIZON 2020 Project on Hydrogen Powered Fuel Cell Utility Vehicles Using Metal Hydrides in Hydrogen Storage and Refuelling Systems
Feb 2021
Publication
Volodymyr A. Yartys,
Mykhaylo V. Lototskyy,
Vladimir Linkov,
Sivakumar Pasupathi,
Moegamat Wafeeq Davids,
Gojmir Radica,
Roman V. Denys,
Jon Eriksen,
José Bellosta von Colbe,
Klaus Taube,
Giovanni Capurso,
Martin Dornheim,
Fahmida Smith,
Delisile Mathebula,
Dana Swanepoel,
Suwarno Suwarno and
Ivan Tolj
The goal of the EU Horizon 2020 RISE project 778307 “Hydrogen fuelled utility vehicles and their support systems utilising metal hydrides” (HYDRIDE4MOBILITY) is in addressing critical issues towards a commercial implementation of hydrogen powered forklifts using metal hydride (MH) based hydrogen storage and PEM fuel cells together with the systems for their refuelling at industrial customers facilities. For these applications high specific weight of the metallic hydrides has an added value as it allows counterbalancing of a vehicle with no extra cost. Improving the rates of H2 charge/discharge in MH on the materials and system level simplification of the design and reducing the system cost together with improvement of the efficiency of system “MH store-FC” is in the focus of this work as a joint effort of consortium uniting academic teams and industrial partners from two EU and associated countries Member States (Norway Germany Croatia) and two partner countries (South Africa and Indonesia).<br/>The work within the project is focused on the validation of various efficient and cost-competitive solutions including (i) advanced MH materials for hydrogen storage and compression (ii) advanced MH containers characterised by improved charge-discharge dynamic performance and ability to be mass produced (iii) integrated hydrogen storage and compression/refuelling systems which are developed and tested together with PEM fuel cells during the collaborative efforts of the consortium.<br/>This article gives an overview of HYDRIDE4MOBILITY project focused on the results generated during its first phase (2017–2019).
Hydrogen for Heating? Decarbonization Options for Households in the European Union in 2050
Mar 2021
Publication
This study compares the cost of several low-greenhouse gas (GHG) or GHG-neutral residential heating technologies in the year 2050: (1) hydrogen boilers (2) hydrogen fuel cells with an auxiliary hydrogen boiler for cold spells (3) air-source heat pumps using renewable electricity and (4) heat pumps with an auxiliary hydrogen boiler for cold spells. The assessment includes low-carbon hydrogen from steam-methane reforming (SMR) using natural gas combined with carbon capture and storage (CCS) or SMR + CCS and zero-carbon hydrogen produced from renewable electricity using electrolysis.
The analysis finds that air-source heat pumps are the most cost-effective residential heating technology in 2050 and are at least 50% lower cost than the hydrogen-only technologies. In a sensitivity analysis we find that even if natural gas costs were 50% lower or renewable electricity prices were 50% higher in 2050 compared to our central assumptions heat pumps would still be more cost-effective than hydrogen boilers or fuel cells. Renewable electrolysis hydrogen can be cost-competitive with SMR + CCS hydrogen in 2050 although electrolysis hydrogen is not produced at scale today. At the same time energy efficiency measures to reduce heat demand would be a more cost-effective strategy for achieving GHG reductions than any of the low-GHG heating pathways we assess in this study.
The analysis shows that all pathways using renewable electricity have a near-zero GHG intensity while SMR + CCS hydrogen could reduce GHG emissions by 69%–93% compared to natural gas if improvements are made in the future to reduce the GHG intensity of this pathway. Quantifying the GHG impact and cost effectiveness of various heating pathways is relevant for European policymakers facing decisions on how to both decarbonize buildings and alleviate energy poverty in line with commitments made in the Renovation Wave Initiative.
The document can be downloaded from the ICCT website
The analysis finds that air-source heat pumps are the most cost-effective residential heating technology in 2050 and are at least 50% lower cost than the hydrogen-only technologies. In a sensitivity analysis we find that even if natural gas costs were 50% lower or renewable electricity prices were 50% higher in 2050 compared to our central assumptions heat pumps would still be more cost-effective than hydrogen boilers or fuel cells. Renewable electrolysis hydrogen can be cost-competitive with SMR + CCS hydrogen in 2050 although electrolysis hydrogen is not produced at scale today. At the same time energy efficiency measures to reduce heat demand would be a more cost-effective strategy for achieving GHG reductions than any of the low-GHG heating pathways we assess in this study.
The analysis shows that all pathways using renewable electricity have a near-zero GHG intensity while SMR + CCS hydrogen could reduce GHG emissions by 69%–93% compared to natural gas if improvements are made in the future to reduce the GHG intensity of this pathway. Quantifying the GHG impact and cost effectiveness of various heating pathways is relevant for European policymakers facing decisions on how to both decarbonize buildings and alleviate energy poverty in line with commitments made in the Renovation Wave Initiative.
The document can be downloaded from the ICCT website
Numerical Investigation of the Initial Charging Process of the Liquid Hydrogen Tank for Vehicles
Dec 2022
Publication
Liquid hydrogen has been studied for use in vehicles. However during the charging process liquid hydrogen is lost as gas. Therefore it is necessary to estimate and reduce this loss and simulate the charging process. In this study the initial charging process of a vehicle liquid hydrogen tank under room temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions was numerically investigated. A transient thermal-fluid simulation with a phase-change model was performed to analyze variations in the volume pressure mass flow rate and temperature. The results showed that the process could be divided into three stages. In the first stage liquid hydrogen was actively vaporized at the inner wall surface of the storage tank. The pressure increased rapidly and liquid droplets were discharged into the vent pipe during the second stage. In the third stage the mass flow rates of liquid and hydrogen gas at the outlet showed significant fluctuations owing to complex momentum generated by the evaporation and charging flow. The temperatures of the inner and outer walls and insulation layer decreased significantly slower than that of the gas region because of its high heat capacity and insulation effect. The optimal structure should be further studied because the vortex stagnation and non-uniform cooling of the wall occurred near the inlet and outlet pipes.
Application of Liquid Hydrogen Carriers in Hydrogen Steelmaking
Mar 2021
Publication
Steelmaking is responsible for approximately one third of total industrial carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Hydrogen (H2) direct reduction (H-DR) may be a feasible route towards the decarbonization of primary steelmaking if H2 is produced via electrolysis using fossil-free electricity. However electrolysis is an electricity-intensive process. Therefore it is preferable that H2 is predominantly produced during times of low electricity prices which is enabled by the storage of H2. This work compares the integration of H2 storage in four liquid carriers methanol (MeOH) formic acid (FA) ammonia (NH3) and perhydro-dibenzyltoluene (H18-DBT) in H-DR processes. In contrast to conventional H2 storage methods these carriers allow for H2 storage in liquid form at moderate overpressures reducing the storage capacity cost. The main downside to liquid H2 carriers is that thermochemical processes are necessary for both the storage and release processes often with significant investment and operational costs. The carriers are compared using thermodynamic and economic data to estimate operational and capital costs in the H-DR context considering process integration options. It is concluded that the use of MeOH is promising compared to the other considered carriers. For large storage volumes MeOH-based H2 storage may also be an attractive option to the underground storage of compressed H2. The other considered liquid H2 carriers suffer from large thermodynamic barriers for hydrogenation (FA) or dehydrogenation (NH3 H18-DBT) and higher investment costs. However for the use of MeOH in an H-DR process to be practically feasible questions regarding process flexibility and the optimal sourcing of CO2 and heat must be answered
Energy Management Strategy of Hydrogen Fuel Cell/Battery/Ultracapacitor Hybrid Tractor Based on Efficiency Optimization
Dec 2022
Publication
With the application of new energy technology hybrid agricultural machinery has been developed. This article designs a hybrid tractor energy management method to solve the problem of high energy consumption caused by significant load fluctuation of the tractor in field operation. This article first analyzes the characteristics of the hydrogen fuel cell power battery and ultracapacitor and designs a hybrid energy system for the tractor. Second the energy management strategy (EMS) of multi-layer decoupling control based on the Haar wavelet and logic rule is designed to realize the multi-layer decoupling of high-frequency low-frequency and steady-state signals of load demand power. Then the EMS redistributes the decoupled power signals to each energy source. Finally a hardware-in-loop simulation experiment was carried out through the model. The results show that compared with single-layer control strategies such as fuzzy control and power-following control the multi-layer control strategy can allocate the demand power more reasonably and the efficiency of the hydrogen fuel cell is the highest. The average efficiency of the hydrogen fuel cell was increased by 2.87% and 1.2% respectively. Furthermore the equivalent hydrogen consumption of the tractor was reduced by 17.06% and 5.41% respectively within the experimental cycle. It is shown that the multi-layer control strategy considering power fluctuation can improve the vehicle economy based on meeting the power demanded by the whole vehicle load.
Hydrogen an Enabler of the Grand Transition Future Energy Leader Position Paper
Jan 2018
Publication
A major transformation and redesign of the global energy system is required towards decarbonisation and to achieve the Paris Agreement targets. This Grand Transition is a complex pressing issue where global joint efforts and system solutions are essential; with hydrogen being one of them.<br/>Hydrogen has the potential to be a powerful effective accelerator towards a low-carbon energy system capable of addressing multiple energy challenges: from facilitating the massive integration of renewables and decarbonisation of energy production to energy transportation in a zero-carbon energy economy to electrification of end uses.
Using Hydrogen Reactors to Improve the Diesel Engine Performance
Apr 2022
Publication
This work is aimed at solving the problem of converting diesel power drives to diesel– hydrogen fuels which are more environmentally friendly and less expensive alternatives to diesel fuel. The method of increasing the energy efficiency of diesel fuels has been improved. The thermochemical essence of using methanol as an alternative fuel to increase energy efficiency based on the provisions of thermotechnics is considered. Alternative methanol fuel has been chosen as the initial product for the hydrogen conversion process and its energy value cost and temperature conditions have been taken into account. Calculations showed that the caloric effect from the combustion of the converted mixture of hydrogen H2 and carbon monoxide CO exceeds the effect from the combustion of the same amount of methanol fuel. Engine power and fuel energy were increased due to the thermochemical regeneration of engine exhaust gas heat. An experimental setup was created to study the operation of a converted diesel engine on diesel–hydrogen products. Experimental studies of power and environmental parameters of a diesel engine converted for diesel–hydrogen products were performed. The studies showed that the conversion of diesel engines to operate using diesel– hydrogen products is technically feasible. A reduction in energy consumption was accompanied by an improvement in the environmental performance of the diesel–hydrogen engine working together with a chemical methanol conversion thermoreactor. The formation of carbon monoxide occurred in the range of 52–62%; nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases decreased by 53–60% according to the crankshaft speed and loading on the experimental engine. In addition soot emissions were reduced by 17% for the engine fueled with the diesel–hydrogen fuel. The conversion of diesel engines for diesel–hydrogen products is very profitable because the price of methanol is on average 10–20% of the cost of petroleum fuel.
Study on Fuel Cells Hydrogen Trucks
Dec 2020
Publication
Fuel cell and hydrogen (FCH) technology is a very promising zero-emission powertrain solution for the heavy-duty trucking industry. The FCH 2 JU subcontracted this study to analyse the state-of-the-art of the technology its surrounding policy and regulatory regime ongoing trial and demonstrations projects and its total cost of ownership and market potential. Furthermore specific case studies and industry experts identified remaining technological and non-technological barriers for FCH technology in different trucking use cases.
The study projects a potential fuel cell trucks sales share of approx. 17% of new trucks sold in 2030 based on a strong technology cost-reduction trajectory. With scaled-up production of FCH trucks and hydrogen offered below 6 EUR/kg FCH heavy-duty trucks (FCH HDT) provide the operational performance most comparable to diesel trucks regarding daily range refuelling time payload capacity and TCO. Nine case studies were developed as first tangible business opportunity blueprints for the industry. They also provide a view on current limitations of real-life operations. In conclusion 22 barriers have been identified that successfully tackled will unlock the full commercial potential of FCH HDT for the trucking and logistics industry. The study proposes tailored R&I projects and policy recommendations that address such remaining barriers in the short-term.
The study projects a potential fuel cell trucks sales share of approx. 17% of new trucks sold in 2030 based on a strong technology cost-reduction trajectory. With scaled-up production of FCH trucks and hydrogen offered below 6 EUR/kg FCH heavy-duty trucks (FCH HDT) provide the operational performance most comparable to diesel trucks regarding daily range refuelling time payload capacity and TCO. Nine case studies were developed as first tangible business opportunity blueprints for the industry. They also provide a view on current limitations of real-life operations. In conclusion 22 barriers have been identified that successfully tackled will unlock the full commercial potential of FCH HDT for the trucking and logistics industry. The study proposes tailored R&I projects and policy recommendations that address such remaining barriers in the short-term.
Is Hydrogen the Fuel of the Future?
Jul 2019
Publication
Global warming and melting of the ice on both poles of the Earth is caused by the greenhouse effect which is the result of CO2 production. This gas is considered as the main gas causing the greenhouse effect although not the only one. To reduce the total amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere mankind looks for an alternative fuel with no carbon present in its molekules. Hydrogen is such a fuel although emissions are produced also during the fuel production process. To compare hydrogen fuel with fossil fuels more aspects have to be considered.
Hydrogen for Cooking: A Review of Cooking Technologies, Renewable Hydrogen Systems and Techno-Economics
Dec 2022
Publication
About 3 billion people use conventional carbon-based fuels such as wood charcoal and animal dung for their daily cooking needs. Cooking with biomass causes deforestation and habitat loss emissions of greenhouse gases and smoke pollution that affects people’s health and well-being. Hydrogen can play a role in enabling clean and safe cooking by reducing household air pollution and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This first-of-a-kind review study on cooking with hydrogen assessed existing cooking technologies and hydrogen systems in developing country contexts. Our critical assessment also included the modelling and experimental studies on hydrogen. Renewable hydrogen systems and their adoptability in developing countries were analysed. Finally we presented a scenario for hydrogen production pathways in developing countries. Our findings indicated that hydrogen is attractive and can be safely used as a cooking fuel. However radical and disruptive models are necessary to transform the traditional cooking landscape. There is a need to develop global south-based hydrogen models that emphasize adoptability and capture the challenges in developing countries. In addition the techno-economic assumptions of the models vary significantly leading to a wide-ranging levelized cost of electricity. This finding underscored the necessity to use comprehensive techno-economic assumptions that can accurately predict hydrogen costs.
Towards Climate Resilient Urban Energy Systems: A Review
Jun 2020
Publication
Climate change and increased urban population are two major concerns for society. Moving towards more sustainable energy solutions in the urban context by integrating renewable energy technologies supports decarbonizing the energy sector and climate change mitigation. A successful transition also needs adequate consideration of climate change including extreme events to ensure the reliable performance of energy systems in the long run. This review provides an overview of and insight into the progress achieved in the energy sector to adapt to climate change focusing on the climate resilience of urban energy systems. The state-of-the-art methodology to assess impacts of climate change including extreme events and uncertainties on the design and performance of energy systems is described and discussed. Climate resilience is an emerging concept that is increasingly used to represent the durability and stable performance of energy systems against extreme climate events. However it has not yet been adequately explored and widely used as its definition has not been clearly articulated and assessment is mostly based on qualitative aspects. This study reveals that a major limitation in the state-of-the-art is the inadequacy of climate change adaptation approaches in designing and preparing urban energy systems to satisfactorily address plausible extreme climate events. Furthermore the complexity of the climate and energy models and the mismatch between their temporal and spatial resolutions are the major limitations in linking these models. Therefore few studies have focused on the design and operation of urban energy infrastructure in terms of climate resilience. Considering the occurrence of extreme climate events and increasing demand for implementing climate adaptation strategies the study highlights the importance of improving energy system models to consider future climate variations including extreme events to identify climate resilient energy transition pathways.
Mapping of Hydrogen Fuel Quality in Europe
Nov 2020
Publication
As part of FCH-JU funded HyCoRA project running from 2014 to 2017 28 gaseous and 13 particulate samples were collected from hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe. Samples were collected with commercial sampling instruments and analysis performed in compliance with prevailing fuel quality standards. Sampling was conducted with focus on diversity in feedstock as well as commissioning date of the HRS. Results indicate that the strategy for sampling was good. No evidence of impurity cross-over was observed. Parallel samples collected indicate some variation in analytical results. It was however found that fuel quality was generally good. Fourteen analytical results were in violation with the fuel tolerance limits. Therefore eight or 29% of the samples were in violation with the fuel quality requirements. Nitrogen oxygen and organics were the predominant impurities quantified. Particulate impurities were found to be within fuel quality specifications. No correlation between fuel quality and hydrogen feedstock or HRS commissioning date was found. Nitrogen to oxygen ratios gave no indication of samples being contaminated by air. A comparison of analytical results between two different laboratories were conducted. Some difference in analytical results were observed.
Open-source Simulation of the Long-term Diffusion of Alternative Passenger Cars on the Basis of Investment Decisions of Private Persons
Feb 2021
Publication
Numerous studies have shown that a full electrification of passenger cars is needed to stay within the 1.5° C temperature rise. This article deals with the question of how the required shares of alternative vehicles can be achieved by the year 2050. In literature the preferred technology are battery electric vehicles as these are more energy efficient than hydrogen vehicles. To be able to demonstrate how alternative vehicles diffuse into the German market the passenger car investment behavior of private persons was investigated. For this purpose a discrete choice experiment (DCE) with 1921 participants was carried out empirically. The results of the DCE show that the investment costs in particular are important when choosing a vehicle. This is followed by the driving range fuel costs and vehicle type. Less important are the charging infrastructure and CO2 emissions of the vehicle. A CO2 tax is of least importance. The utility values of the DCE were used to simulate future market shares. For this purpose the open-source software Invest was developed and different scenarios were defined and calculated. This paper shows that conservative assumptions on attribute development leave a large gap until full electrification as conventional vehicles still account for around 62% of market shares in 2050. In order to achieve full electrification extreme efforts must be made targeting the technical and economic characteristics of the vehicles but also addressing person-related characteristics such as level of information the subjective norm or the technological risk attitude. A ban on new registrations of combustion engines from 2030 could also lead to a full electrification by 2050. An average annual increase in the market share of alternative vehicles of 2.4 percentage points is needed to achieve full electrification. Other important factors are measures that address the modal shift to other modes of transport (rail public transport car-sharing).
Recent Progress in Ammonia Fuel Cells and their Potential Applications
Nov 2020
Publication
Conventional technologies are largely powered by fossil fuel exploitation and have ultimately led to extensive environmental concerns. Hydrogen is an excellent carbon-free energy carrier but its storage and long-distance transportation remain big challenges. Ammonia however is a promising indirect hydrogen storage medium that has well-established storage and transportation links to make it an accessible fuel source. Moreover the notion of ‘green ammonia’ synthesised from renewable energy sources is an emerging topic that may open significant markets and provide a pathway to decarbonise a variety of applications reliant on fossil fuels. Herein a comparative study based on the chosen design working principles advantages and disadvantages of direct ammonia fuel cells is summarised. This work aims to review the most recent advances in ammonia fuel cells and demonstrates how close this technology type is to integration with future applications. At present several challenges such as material selection NOx formation CO2 tolerance limited power densities and long term stability must still be overcome and are also addressed within the contents of this review.
Comparison of Hydrogen and Battery Electric Trucks
Jul 2020
Publication
Only emissions-free vehicles which include battery electric (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell trucks (FCEVs) can provide for a credible long-term pathway towards the full decarbonisation of the road freight sector. This document lays out the methodology and assumptions which were used to calculate the total cost of ownership (TCO) of the two vehicle technologies for regional delivery and long-haul truck applications. It also discusses other criteria such as refuelling and recharging times as well as potential payload losses.
Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website
Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website
Deep Decarbonisation Pathways for Scottish Industries: Research Report
Dec 2020
Publication
The following report is a research piece outlining the potential pathways for decarbonisation of Scottish Industries. Two main pathways are considered hydrogen and electrification with both resulting in similar costs and levels of carbon reduction.
The Role of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Global Energy System
Dec 2018
Publication
Hydrogen technologies have experienced cycles of excessive expectations followed by disillusion. Nonetheless a growing body of evidence suggests these technologies form an attractive option for the deep decarbonisation of global energy systems and that recent improvements in their cost and performance point towards economic viability as well. This paper is a comprehensive review of the potential role that hydrogen could play in the provision of electricity heat industry transport and energy storage in a low-carbon energy system and an assessment of the status of hydrogen in being able to fulfil that potential. The picture that emerges is one of qualified promise: hydrogen is well established in certain niches such as forklift trucks while mainstream applications are now forthcoming. Hydrogen vehicles are available commercially in several countries and 225 000 fuel cell home heating systems have been sold. This represents a step change from the situation of only five years ago. This review shows that challenges around cost and performance remain and considerable improvements are still required for hydrogen to become truly competitive. But such competitiveness in the medium-term future no longer seems an unrealistic prospect which fully justifies the growing interest and policy support for these technologies around the world.
Electric and Hydrogen Buses: Shifting from Conventionally Fuelled Cars in the UK
May 2020
Publication
For the UK to meet their national target of net zero emissions as part of the central Paris Agreement target further emphasis needs to be placed on decarbonizing public transport and moving away from personal transport (conventionally fuelled vehicles (CFVs) and electric vehicles (EVs)). Electric buses (EBs) and hydrogen buses (HBs) have the potential to fulfil requirements if powered from low carbon renewable energy sources.
A comparison of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced from conventionally fuelled buses (CFB) EBs and HBs between 2017 and 2050 under four National Grid electricity scenarios was conducted. In addition emissions per person at different vehicle capacity levels (100% 75% 50% and 25%) were projected for CFBs HBs EBs and personal transport assuming a maximum of 80 passengers per bus and four per personal vehicle.
Results indicated that CFVs produced 30 g CO2km−1 per person compared to 16.3 g CO2 km−1 per person by CFBs by 2050. At 100% capacity under the two-degree scenario CFB emissions were 36 times higher than EBs 9 times higher than HBs and 12 times higher than EVs in 2050. Cumulative emissions under all electricity scenarios remained lower for EBs and HBs.
Policy makers need to focus on encouraging a modal shift from personal transport towards sustainable public transport primarily EBs as the lowest level emitting vehicle type. Simple electrification of personal vehicles will not meet the required targets. Simultaneously CFBs need to be replaced with EBs and HBs if the UK is going to meet emission targets.
A comparison of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced from conventionally fuelled buses (CFB) EBs and HBs between 2017 and 2050 under four National Grid electricity scenarios was conducted. In addition emissions per person at different vehicle capacity levels (100% 75% 50% and 25%) were projected for CFBs HBs EBs and personal transport assuming a maximum of 80 passengers per bus and four per personal vehicle.
Results indicated that CFVs produced 30 g CO2km−1 per person compared to 16.3 g CO2 km−1 per person by CFBs by 2050. At 100% capacity under the two-degree scenario CFB emissions were 36 times higher than EBs 9 times higher than HBs and 12 times higher than EVs in 2050. Cumulative emissions under all electricity scenarios remained lower for EBs and HBs.
Policy makers need to focus on encouraging a modal shift from personal transport towards sustainable public transport primarily EBs as the lowest level emitting vehicle type. Simple electrification of personal vehicles will not meet the required targets. Simultaneously CFBs need to be replaced with EBs and HBs if the UK is going to meet emission targets.
A Modelling Study for the Integration of a PEMFC Micro-CHP in Domestic Building Services Design
May 2018
Publication
Fuel cell based micro-combined heat and power (CHP) units used for domestic applications can provide significant cost and environmental benefits for end users and contribute to the UK’s 2050 emissions target by reducing primary energy consumption in dwellings. Lately there has been increased interest in the development of systematic methods for the design of such systems and their smoother integration with domestic building services. Several models in the literature whether they use a simulation or an optimisation approach ignore the dwelling side of the system and optimise the efficiency or delivered power of the unit. However the design of the building services is linked to the choice of heating plant and its characteristics. Adding the dwelling’s energy demand and temperature constraints in a model can produce more general results that can optimise the whole system not only the micro-CHP unit. The fuel cell has various heat streams that can be harvested to satisfy heat demand in a dwelling and the design can vary depending on the proportion of heat needed from each heat stream to serve the energy demand. A mixed integer non-linear programming model (MINLP) that can handle multiple heat sources and demands is presented in this paper. The methodology utilises a process systems engineering approach. The model can provide a design that integrates the temperature and water flow constraints of a dwelling’s heating system with the heat streams within the fuel cell processes while optimising total CO2 emissions. The model is demonstrated through different case studies that attempt to capture the variability of the housing stock. The predicted CO2 emissions reduction compared to a conventionally designed building vary from 27% to 30% and the optimum capacity of the fuel cell ranges between 1.9 kW and 3.6 kW. This research represents a significant step towards an integrated fuel cell micro-CHP and dwelling design.
Local Degradation Effects in Automotive Size Membrane Electrode Assemblies Under Realistic Operating Conditions
Dec 2019
Publication
In automotive applications the operational parameters for fuel cell (FC) systems can vary over a wide range. To analyze their impact on fuel cell degradation an automotive size single cell was operated under realistic working conditions. The parameter sets were extracted from the FC system modelling based on on-road customer data. The parameter variation included simultaneous variation of the FC load gas pressures cell temperature stoichiometries and relative humidity. Current density distributions and the overall cell voltage were recorded in real time during the tests. The current densities were low at the geometric anode gas outlet and high at the anode gas inlet. After electrochemical tests post mortem analysis was conducted on the membrane electrode assemblies using scanning electron microscopy. The ex-situ analysis showed significant cathode carbon corrosion in areas associated with low current densities. This suggests that fuel starvation close to the anode outlet is the origin of the cathode electrode degradation. The results of the numerical simulations reveal high relative humidity at that region and therefore water flooding is assumed to cause local anode fuel starvation. Even though the hydrogen oxidation reaction has low kinetic overpotentials “local availability” of H2 plays a significant role in maintaining a homogeneous current density distribution and thereby in local degradation of the cathode catalyst layer. The described phenomena occurred while the overall cell voltage remained above 0.3 V. This indicates that only voltage monitoring of fuel cell systems does not contain straightforward information about this type of degradation.
Study on the Explosion of the Hydrogen Fuel Tank of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles in Semi-Enclosed Spaces
Dec 2022
Publication
The rise in hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is expected to pose a variety of hazards on the road. Vehicles using hydrogen could cause significant damage owing to hydrogen vapor cloud explosions jet fires caused by leakage or hydrogen tank explosions. This risk is expected to further increase in semi-enclosed spaces such as underground parking lots and road tunnels. Therefore it is necessary to study the fire safety of hydrogen vehicles in semi-enclosed spaces. In this study an experiment on hydrogen tank explosion was performed. In addition the CFD numerical model was verified using the experimental results and the damaging effect due to pressure propagation during hydrogen tank explosions in underground parking lots and road tunnels was analyzed using numerical analysis. From the experiment results the hydrogen tank exploded at about 80 Mpa a maximum incident pressure is generated 267 kPa at a distance of 1.9 m. As a result of numerical analysis based on the experimental results the limit distance that can cause serious injury due to the explosion of a hydrogen tank in a road tunnel or underground parking lot was analyzed up to about 20 m from the point of explosion.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Is This the End of the Diesel Train?
Jan 2020
Publication
For this show the team are taking a dive into the world of hydrogen trains and who better to speak to this space than Mike Muldoon Head of Business Development and Marketing for Alstom UK&I. Alstom have been the pioneers of hydrogen powered rail and in addition to two operating trains in Germany have secured over Eur500 million of orders for hydrogen trains. On the show we talk to Mike about why Alstom see hydrogen as a key part of the evolution of the rail industry towards zero emissions and why hydrogen today is such a compelling proposition for operators and investors.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
A Concept to Support the Transformation from a Linear to Circular Carbon Economy: Net Zero emissions, Resource Efficiency and Conservation Through a Coupling of the Energy, Chemical and Waste Management Sectors
Dec 2017
Publication
Coal and carbon-containing waste are valuable primary and secondary carbon carriers. In the current dominant linear economy such carbon resources are generally combusted to produce electricity and heat and as a way to resolve a nation’s waste issue. Not only is this a wastage of precious carbon resources which can be chemically utilized as raw materials for production of other value-added goods it is also contrary to international efforts to reduce carbon emissions and increase resource efficiency and conservation. This article presents a concept to support the transformation from a linear ‘one-way cradle to grave manufacturing model’ toward a circular carbon economy. The development of new and sustainable value chains through the utilization of coal and waste as alternative raw materials for the chemical industry via a coupling of the energy chemical and waste management sectors offers a viable and future-oriented perspective for closing the carbon cycle. Further benefits also include a lowering of the carbon footprint and increasing resource efficiency and conservation of primary carbon resources. In addition technological innovations and developments that are necessary to support a successful sector coupling will be identified. To illustrate our concept a case analysis of domestic coal and waste as alternative feedstock to imported crude oil for chemical production in Germany will be presented. Last but not least challenges posed by path dependency along technological institutional and human dimensions in the sociotechnical system for a successful transition toward a circular carbon economy will be discussed.
Decarbonizing Vehicle Transportation with Hydrogen from Biomass Gasification: An Assessment in the Nigerian Urban Environment
Apr 2022
Publication
Tailpipe emissions from vehicles consist of CO2 and other greenhouse gases which con‐ tribute immensely to the rise in global temperatures. Green hydrogen produced from the gasification of biomass can reduce the amount of CO2 emissions to zero. This study aims to provide a modelling framework to optimize the production of hydrogen from biomass waste obtained from different cities for use in the road transport sector in Nigeria. A gasification model with post‐treatment shift conversion and CO2 removal by adsorption is proposed. In this study six cities are simulated based on technical and environmental considerations using the Aspen Plus software package. The results revealed that Kaduna has the highest hydrogen generation potential of 0.148 million metric tons per year which could reduce CO2 emissions to 1.60 and 1.524 million metric tons by the dis‐ placement of an equivalent volume of gasoline and diesel. This amounts to cost savings of NGN 116 and 161.8 billion for gasoline and diesel respectively. In addition the results of the sensitivity analysis revealed that the steam‐to‐biomass ratio and the temperature of gasification are positively correlated with the amount of avoided CO2 emissions while the equivalence ratio shows a negative correlation.
Optimal Scheduling of Electricity-Hydrogen Coupling Virtual Power Plant Considering Hydrogen Load Response
Mar 2024
Publication
With the rapid development of hydrogen production by water electrolysis the coupling between the electricity-hydrogen system has become closer providing an effective way to consume surplus new energy generation. As a form of centralized management of distributed energy resources virtual power plants can aggregate the integrated energy production and consumption segments in a certain region and participate in electricity market transactions as a single entity to enhance overall revenue. Based on this this paper proposes an optimal scheduling model of an electricity-hydrogen coupling virtual power plant (EHC-VPP) considering hydrogen load response relying on hydrogen to ammonia as a flexibly adjustable load-side resource in the EHC-VPP to enable the VPP to participate in the day-ahead energy market to maximize benefits. In addition this paper also considers the impact of the carbon emission penalty to practice the green development concept of energy saving and emission reduction. To validate the economy of the proposed optimization scheduling method in this paper the optimization scheduling results under three different operation scenarios are compared and analyzed. The results show that considering the hydrogen load response and fully exploiting the flexibility resources of the EHC-VPP can further reduce the system operating cost and improve the overall operating efficiency.
Optimized Operation Plan for Hydrogen Refueling Station with On-Site Electrolytic Production
Dec 2022
Publication
The cost reduction of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) is very important for the popularization of hydrogen vehicles. This paper proposes an optimized operation algorithm based on hydrogen energy demand estimation for on-site hydrogen refueling stations. Firstly the user’s hydrogen demand was estimated based on the simulation of their hydrogenation behavior. Secondly mixed integer linear programming method was used to optimize the operation of the hydrogen refueling station to minimize the unit hydrogen energy cost by using the peak–valley difference of the electricity price. We then used three typical scenario cases to evaluate the optimized operation method. The results show that the optimized operation method proposed in this paper can effectively reduce the rated configuration of electrolyzer and storage tank for HRS and can significantly reduce the unit hydrogen energy cost considering the construction cost compared with the traditional method. Therefore the optimization operation method of a local hydrogen production and hydrogen refueling station proposed in this paper can reduce the cost of a hydrogen refueling station and accelerate the popularization of hydrogen energy vehicles. Finally the scope of application of the proposed optimization method and the influence of the variation of the electricity price curve and the unit cost of the electrolyzer are discussed.
Feasibility Investigation of Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure for Heavy‐Duty Vehicles in Canada
Apr 2022
Publication
A potentially viable solution to the problem of greenhouse gas emissions by vehicles in the transportation sector is the deployment of hydrogen as alternative fuel. A limitation to the diffusion of the hydrogen‐fuelled vehicles option is the intricate refuelling stations that vehicles will require. This study examines the practical use of hydrogen fuel within the internal combustion engine (ICE)‐powered long‐haul heavy‐duty trucking vehicles. Specifically it appraises the techno‐ economic feasibility of constructing a network of long‐haul truck refuelling stations using hydrogen fuel across Canada. Hydrogen fuel is chosen as an option for this study due to its low carbon emissions rate compared to diesel. This study also explores various operational methods including variable technology integration levels and truck traffic flows truck and pipeline delivery of hydrogen to stations and the possibility of producing hydrogen onsite. The proposed models created for this work suggest important parameters for economic development such as capital costs for station construction the selling price of fuel and the total investment cost for the infrastructure of a nation‐ wide refuelling station. Results showed that the selling price of hydrogen gas pipeline delivery op‐ tion is more economically stable. Specifically it was found that at 100% technology integration the range in selling prices was between 8.3 and 25.1 CAD$/kg. Alternatively at 10% technology integration the range was from 12.7 to 34.1 CAD$/kg. Moreover liquid hydrogen which is delivered by trucks generally had the highest selling price due to its very prohibitive storage costs. However truck‐delivered hydrogen stations provided the lowest total investment cost; the highest is shown by pipe‐delivered hydrogen and onsite hydrogen production processes using high technology integration methods. It is worth mentioning that once hydrogen technology is more developed and deployed the refuelling infrastructure cost is likely to decrease considerably. It is expected that the techno‐economic model developed in this work will be useful to design and optimize new and more efficient hydrogen refuelling stations for any ICE vehicles or fuel cell vehicles.
Operation Analysis of Selected Domestic Appliances Supplied with Mixture of Nitrogen-Rich Natural Gas with Hydrogen
Dec 2021
Publication
This is article presents the results of the testing of the addition of a hydrogen-to-nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group and its influence on the operation of selected gas-fired domestic appliances. The tests were performed on appliances used for the preparation of meals and hot water production for hygienic and heating purposes. The characteristics of the tested gas appliances are also presented. The burners and their controllers with which the tested appliances were equipped were adapted for the combustion of Lw natural gas. The tested appliances reflected the most popular designs for domestic gas appliances in their group used both in Poland and in other European countries. The tested appliances were supplied with nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group and a mixture of this gas with hydrogen at 13.2% content. The article presents the approximate percentage compositions of the gases used during the tests and their energy parameters. The research was focused on checking the following operating parameters and the safety of the tested appliances: the rated heat input thermal efficiency combustion quality ignition flame stability and transfer. The article contains an analysis of the test results referring in detail to the issue of decreasing the heat input of the appliances by lowering the energy parameters of the nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group mixture with a hydrogen addition and how it influenced the thermal efficiency achieved by the appliances. The conclusions contain an explanation regarding among other things how the design of an appliance influences the thermal efficiency achieved by it in relation to the heat input decrease. In the conclusions on the basis of the research results answers have been provided to the following questions: (1) Whether the hydrogen addition to the nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group will influence the safe and proper operation of domestic gas appliances; (2) What hydrogen percentage can be added to the nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group in order for the appliances adapted for combusting it to operate safely and effectively without the need for modifying them?
Effect of Hydrogen-diesel Fuel Co-combustion on Exhaust Emissions with Verification Using an Inecylinder Gas Sampling Technique
Aug 2014
Publication
The paper presents an experimental investigation of hydrogen-diesel fuel co-combustion carried out on a naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine. The engine was supplied with a range of hydrogen-diesel fuel mixture proportions to study the effect of hydrogen addition (aspirated with the intake air) on combustion and exhaust emissions. The tests were performed at fixed diesel injection periods with hydrogen added to vary the engine load between 0 and 6 bar IMEP. In addition a novel inecylinder gas sampling technique was employed to measure species concentrations in the engine cylinder at two inecylinder locations and at various instants during the combustion process. The results showed a decrease in the particulates CO and THC emissions and a slight increase in CO2 emissions with the addition of hydrogen with fixed diesel fuel injection periods. NOx emissions increased steeply with hydrogen addition but only when the combined diesel and hydrogen co-combustion temperatures exceeded the threshold temperature for NOx formation. The inecylinder gas sampling results showed higher NOx levels between adjacent spray cones in comparison to sampling within an individual spray cone.
Effect of Hydrogen–diesel Dual-fuel Usage on Performance, Emissions and Diesel Combustion in Diesel Engines
Jul 2016
Publication
Diesel engines are inevitable parts of our daily life and will be in the future. Expensive after-treatment technologies to fulfil normative legislations about the harmful tail-pipe emissions and fuel price increase in recent years created expectations from researchers for alternative fuel applications on diesel engines. This study investigates hydrogen as additive fuel in diesel engines. Hydrogen was introduced into intake manifold using gas injectors as additive fuel in gaseous form and also diesel fuel was injected into cylinder by diesel injector and used as igniter. Energy content of introduced hydrogen was set to 0% 25% and 50% of total fuel energy where the 0% references neat diesel operation without hydrogen injection. Test conditions were set to full load at 750 900 1100 1400 1750 and finally 2100 r/min engine speed. Variation in engine performance emissions and combustion characteristics with hydrogen addition was investigated. Hydrogen introduction into the engine by 25% and 50% of total charge energy reveals significant decrease in smoke emissions while dramatic increase in nitrogen oxides. With increasing hydrogen content a slight rise is observed in total unburned hydrocarbons although CO2 and CO gaseous emissions reduced considerably. Maximum in-cylinder gas pressure and rate of heat release peak values raised with hydrogen fraction.
The Role of Charging and Refuelling Infrastructure in Supporting Zero-emission Vehicle Sales
Mar 2020
Publication
Widespread uptake of battery electric plug-in hybrid and hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles (collectively zero-emissions vehicles or ZEVs) could help many regions achieve deep greenhouse gas mitigation goals. Using the case of Canada this study investigates the extent to which increasing ZEV charging and refuelling availability may boost ZEV sales relative to other ZEV-supportive policies. We adapt a version of the Respondent-based Preferences and Constraints (REPAC) model using 2017 survey data from 1884 Canadian new vehicle-buyers to simulate the sales impacts of increasing electric vehicle charging access at home work public destinations and on highways as well as increasing hydrogen refuelling station access. REPAC is built from a stated preference choice model and represents constraints in supply and consumer awareness as well as dynamics in ZEV policy out to 2030. Results suggest that new ZEV market share from 2020 to 2030 does not substantially benefit from increased infrastructure. Even when electric charging and hydrogen refuelling access are simulated to reach “universally” available levels by 2030 ZEV sales do not rise by more than 1.5 percentage points above the baseline trajectory. On the other hand REPAC simulates ZEV market share rising as high as 30% by 2030 with strong ZEV-supportive policies even without the addition of charging or refuelling infrastructure. These findings stem from low consumer valuation of infrastructure found in the stated preference model. Results suggest that achieving ambitious ZEV sale targets requires a comprehensive suite of policies beyond a focus on charging and refuelling infrastructure.
A Coupled Transient Gas Flow Calculation with a Simultaneous Calorific-value-gradient Improved Hydrogen Tracking
Apr 2022
Publication
Gas systems can provide considerable flexibility in integrated energy systems to accommodate hydrogen produced from Power-to-Hydrogen units using excess volatile renewable energy generation. To use the flexibility in integrated energy systems while ensuring a secure and reliable system operation gas system operators need to accurately and easily analyze the effects of varying hydrogen levels on the dynamic gas behavior and vice versa. Existing methods for hydrogen tracking however either solve the hydrogen propagation and dynamic gas behavior separately or must cope with a large inaccuracy. Hence existing methods do not allow an accurate and coupled analysis of gas systems in integrated energy systems considering varying hydrogen levels. This paper proposes a calorific-value-gradient method which can accurately track the propagation of varying hydrogen levels in a gas system even with large simulation time increments of up to one hour. The new method is joined and simultaneously solved with an implicit finite difference scheme describing the transient gas behavior in a single equation system in a coupled Newton–Raphson gas flow calculation. As larger simulation time increments can be chosen without reducing the accuracy the computation time can be strongly reduced compared to existing Euler-based methods. With its high accuracy and its coupled approach this paper provides gas system operators a method to accurately analyze how the propagation of hydrogen affects the entire gas system. With its coupled approach the presented method can enhance the investigation of integrated energy systems as the transient gas behavior and varying hydrogen propagation of the gas system can be easily included in such analyses.
Technical and Economic Analysis of One-Stop Charging Stations for Battery and Fuel Cell EV with Renewable Energy Sources
Jun 2020
Publication
Currently most of the vehicles make use of fossil fuels for operations resulting in one of the largest sources of carbon dioxide emissions. The need to cut our dependency on these fossil fuels has led to an increased use of renewable energy sources (RESs) for mobility purposes. A technical and economic analysis of a one-stop charging station for battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) is investigated in this paper. The hybrid optimization model for electric renewables (HOMER) software and the heavy-duty refueling station analysis model (HDRSAM) are used to conduct the case study for a one-stop charging station at Technical University of Denmark (DTU)-Risø campus. Using HOMER a total of 42 charging station scenarios are analyzed by considering two systems (a grid-connected system and an off-grid connected system). For each system three different charging station designs (design A-hydrogen load; design B-an electrical load and design C-an integrated system consisting of both hydrogen and electrical load) are set up for analysis. Furthermore seven potential wind turbines with different capacity are selected from HOMER database for each system. Using HDRSAM a total 18 scenarios are analyzed with variation in hydrogen delivery option production volume hydrogen dispensing option and hydrogen dispensing option. The optimal solution from HOMER for a lifespan of twenty-five years is integrated into design C with the grid-connected system whose cost was $986065. For HDRSAM the optimal solution design consists of tube trailer as hydrogen delivery with cascade dispensing option at 350 bar together with high production volume and the cost of the system was $452148. The results from the two simulation tools are integrated and the overall cost of the one-stop charging station is achieved which was $2833465. The analysis demonstrated that the one-stop charging station with a grid connection is able to fulfil the charging demand cost-effectively and environmentally friendly for an integrated energy system with RESs in the investigated locations.
Propulsion of a Hydrogen-fuelled LH2 Tanker Ship
Mar 2022
Publication
This study aims to present a philosophical and quantitative perspective of a propulsion system for a large-scale hydrogen-fuelled liquid-hydrogen (LH2) tanker ship. Established methods are used to evaluate the design and performance of an LH2-carrier propulsion system for JAMILA a ship designed with four cylindrical LH2 tanks bearing a total capacity of ~280000 m3 along with cargo and using the boil-off as propulsion and power fuel. Additionally the ship propulsion system is evaluated based on the ship resistance requirements and a hydrogen-fuelled combined-cycle gas turbine is modelled to achieve the dual objectives of high efficiency and zero-carbon footprint. The required inputs primarily involve the off-design and degraded performance of the gas-turbine topping cycle and the proposed power plant operates with a total output power of 50 M.W. The results reveal that the output power allows ship operation at a great speed even with a degraded engine and adverse ambient conditions.
Comprehensive Review on Fuel Cell Technology for Stationary Applications as Sustainable and Efficient Poly-Generation Energy Systems
Aug 2021
Publication
Fuel cell technologies have several applications in stationary power production such as units for primary power generation grid stabilization systems adopted to generate backup power and combined-heat-and-power configurations (CHP). The main sectors where stationary fuel cells have been employed are (a) micro-CHP (b) large stationary applications (c) UPS and IPS. The fuel cell size for stationary applications is strongly related to the power needed from the load. Since this sector ranges from simple backup systems to large facilities the stationary fuel cell market includes few kWs and less (micro-generation) to larger sizes of MWs. The design parameters for the stationary fuel cell system differ for fuel cell technology (PEM AFC PAFC MCFC and SOFC) as well as the fuel type and supply. This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of two main trends of research on fuel-cell-based poly-generation systems: tracking the market trends and performance analysis. In deeper detail the present review will list a potential breakdown of the current costs of PEM/SOFC production for building applications over a range of production scales and at representative specifications as well as broken down by component/material. Inherent to the technical performance a concise estimation of FC system durability efficiency production maintenance and capital cost will be presented.
The Deltah Lab, a New Multidisciplinary European Facility to Support the H2 Distribution & Storage Economy
Apr 2021
Publication
The target for European decarburization encourages the use of renewable energy sources and H2 is considered the link in the global energy system transformation. So research studies are numerous but only few facilities can test materials and components for H2 storage. This work offers a brief review of H2 storage methods and presents the preliminary results obtained in a new facility. Slow strain rate and fatigue life tests were performed in H2 at 80 MPa on specimens and a tank of AISI 4145 respectively. Besides the storage capacity at 30 MPa of a solid-state system they were evaluated on kg scale by adsorption test. The results have shown the H2 influence on mechanical properties of the steel. The adsorption test showed a gain of 26% at 12 MPa in H2 storage with respect to the empty condition. All samples have been characterized by complementary techniques in order to connect the H2 effect with material properties.
Green Hydrogen: A Guide to Policy Making
Nov 2020
Publication
Hydrogen produced with renewable energy sources – or “green” hydrogen – has emerged as a key element to achieve net-zero emissions from heavy industry and transport. Along with net-zero commitments by growing numbers of governments green hydrogen has started gaining momentum based on low-cost renewable electricity ongoing technological improvements and the benefits of greater power-system flexibility.
Hydrogen-based fuels previously attracted interest mainly as an alternative to shore up oil supply. However green hydrogen as opposed to the “grey” (fossil-based) or “blue” (hybrid) varieties also help to boost renewables in the energy mix and decarbonise energy-intensive industries.
This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) outlines the main barriers that inhibiting green hydrogen uptake and the policies needed to address these. It also offers insights on how to kickstart the green hydrogen sector as a key enabler of the energy transition at the national or regional level.
Key pillars of green hydrogen policy making include:
Hydrogen-based fuels previously attracted interest mainly as an alternative to shore up oil supply. However green hydrogen as opposed to the “grey” (fossil-based) or “blue” (hybrid) varieties also help to boost renewables in the energy mix and decarbonise energy-intensive industries.
This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) outlines the main barriers that inhibiting green hydrogen uptake and the policies needed to address these. It also offers insights on how to kickstart the green hydrogen sector as a key enabler of the energy transition at the national or regional level.
Key pillars of green hydrogen policy making include:
- National hydrogen strategy. Each country needs to define its level of ambition for hydrogen outline the amount of support required and provide a reference on hydrogen development for private investment and finance.
- Setting policy priorities. Green hydrogen can support a wide range of end-uses. Policy makers should identify and focus on applications that provide the highest value.
- Guarantees of origin. Carbon emissions should be reflected over the whole lifecycle of hydrogen. Origin schemes need to include clear labels for hydrogen and hydrogen products to increase consumer awareness and facilitate claims of incentives.
- Governance system and enabling policies. As green hydrogen becomes mainstream policies should cover its integration into the broader energy system. Civil society and industry must be involved to maximise the benefits.
- Subsequent briefs will explore the entire hydrogen value chain providing sector-by-sector guidance on the design and implementation of green hydrogen policies.
Assessment of a Fuel Cell Based-hybrid Energy System to Generate and Store Electrical Energy
Jan 2022
Publication
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) have significant applications and performance and their integration into coupled and cascading energy systems can improve the overall performance of the process. Furthermore due to the constant time performance of the fuel cell the problem of fuel starvation may arise by changing the amount of load which can adversely affect the overall performance of the process. In the present study the excess heat of the SOFC is converted into electrical energy in two stages using different heat generators. The coupled energy system in the present article has a new configuration in which the relationship of its components is different from the systems reported in the literature. Furthermore since the use of an energy storage system can improve the overall reliability the energy produced by the coupled energy cycle is stored by a storage technology for peak consumption times. The introduced system can generate approximately 580 W of electrical power with an efficiency of 80%. The highest and lowest share in power generation is related to fuel cell with 82% and thermoelectric generator with 5%. The rest of the system power (i.e. 13%) is produced by thermionic generator. In addition the system requires 0.025 kg per hour of hydrogen fuel. It was also found that to operate the system for 5 h a day requires a storage system with a size of 3.3 m3 . Moreover two key issues to enhance the storage system performance are: adjusting the initial pressure of the system to values close to the peak (optimal) value and using turbines and/or pumps with higher efficiencies. With the aim of supplying 5 kWh of electrical energy five different scenarios based on the design of various effective parameters have been presented.
A Modeling Study of Lifetime and Performance Improvements of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell by Reversed Pulse Operation
Jan 2022
Publication
Chromium poisoning of the air electrode is a primary degradation mechanism for solid oxide cells (SOCs) operating under fuel cell mode. Recent experimental findings show that reversed pulse operation for SOCs operated as electrolyser cells can reverse this degradation and extend the lifetime. Here we use a multiphysics model of an SOC to investigate the effects of reversed pulse operation for alleviating chromium poisoning of the air electrode. We study the effects of time fraction of the operation under fuel cell and electrolysis modes cyclic operation starting after a certain duration and fuel cell and electrolysis current densities on the cell lifetime total power and hydrogen production. Our modeling shows that reversed pulse operation enhances cell lifetime and total power for all different cases considered in this study. Moreover results suggest that the cell lifetime total power and hydrogen production can be increased by reversed pulse operation at longer operation times under electrolysis mode cyclic operation starting from the beginning and lower electrolysis current densities. All in all this paper documents and establishes a computational framework that can serve as a platform to assess and quantify the increased profitability of SOCs operating under a co-production operation through reversed pulse operation.
Assessing Uncertainties of Life-Cycle CO2 Emissions Using Hydrogen Energy for Power Generation
Oct 2021
Publication
Hydrogen and its energy carriers such as liquid hydrogen (LH2) methylcyclohexane (MCH) and ammonia (NH3) are essential components of low-carbon energy systems. To utilize hydrogen energy the complete environmental merits of its supply chain should be evaluated. To understand the expected environmental benefit under the uncertainty of hydrogen technology development we conducted life-cycle inventory analysis and calculated CO2 emissions and their uncertainties attributed to the entire supply chain of hydrogen and NH3 power generation (co-firing and mono-firing) in Japan. Hydrogen was assumed to be produced from overseas renewable energy sources with LH2/MCH as the carrier and NH3 from natural gas or renewable energy sources. The Japanese life-cycle inventory database was used to calculate emissions. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to evaluate emission uncertainty and mitigation factors using hydrogen energy. For LH2 CO2 emission uncertainty during hydrogen liquefaction can be reduced by using low-carbon fuel. For MCH CO2 emissions were not significantly affected by power consumption of overseas processes; however it can be reduced by implementing low-carbon fuel and waste-heat utilization during MCH dehydrogenation. Low-carbon NH3 production processes significantly affected power generation whereas carbon capture and storage during NH3 production showed the greatest reduction in CO2 emission. In conclusion reducing CO2 emissions during the production of hydrogen and NH3 is key to realize low-carbon hydrogen energy systems.
Sustainability Implications of Using Hydrogen as an Automotive Fuel in Western Australia
Jul 2020
Publication
Hydrogen is regarded as a potential solution to address future energy demands and environmental protection challenges. This study assesses the triple bottom line (TBL) sustainability performance of hydrogen as an automotive fuel for Western Australia (WA) using a life cycle approach. Hydrogen is considered to be produced through water electrolysis. Two scenarios current grid electricity and future renewable-based hydrogen were compared with gasoline as a base case. The results show that locally produced grid electricity-based hydrogen is good for local jobs but exhibits higher environmental impacts and negative economic benefits for consumers when compared to gasoline. After incorporating wind-generated electricity reductions of around 69% and 65% in global warming potential (GWP) and fossil fuel depletion (FFD) respectively were achieved compared to the base case gasoline. The land utilization for the production of hydrogen is not a problem as Western Australia has plenty of land to accommodate renewable energy projects. Water for hydrogen feedstock could be sourced through seawater desalination or from wastewater treatment plants in WA. Hydrogen also performed better than gasoline in terms of human health and conservation of fossil fuel indicators under the renewable energy scenario. Local job creation potential of hydrogen was estimated to be 1.29E-03 man-hours/VKT. It has also been found that the cost of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCV) needs to be similar to that of gasoline vehicles (GV) in order to be comparable with the gasoline life cycle cost per vehicle kilometre travel (VKT).
Supporting Hydrogen Development in Australia Short Film
Jan 2021
Publication
This short film promotes Geoscience Australia's online and publicly accessible hydrogen data products. The film steps through the functionality of GA's Australian Hydrogen Opportunities Tool (AusH2) and describes the upcoming Hydrogen Economic Fairways Tool which has been created through a collaborative effort with Monash University.
The Fuel Cell Industry Review 2020
Jan 2020
Publication
The Fuel Cell Industry Review 2020 offers data analysis and commentary on key events in the industry in 2020. Now in its seventh year the Review has been compiled by a team led by E4tech - a specialist energy strategy consultancy with deep expertise in the hydrogen and fuel cell sector (see www.e4tech.com).
Despite the title of this publication we’ve said before that the fuel cell ‘industry’ is not a single industry at all. As those inside it know it is divided by different materials stages of maturity applications and regions – all contributors to the fact it has taken time to get going. But it does seem to be getting traction. Part of that is down to decades of hard work and investment in R&D technology improvement and demonstrations. Thankfully part of it is also down to changes in external conditions. Improving air quality is increasingly non-negotiable. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions likewise. And all while maintaining economic development and opportunity.
The growth spurt of the battery industry allied with some of the drivers above has catalysed thinking in where and how fuel cells can fit. Countries and regions which did not support batteries early on are scrambling to catch up and wish not to risk a repeat of their errors with fuel cells. So support is being targeted at industrial development and competitiveness as well as solving societal problems. Which in turn is helping industry to decide on and take investment steps: Weichai’s 20000 unit per annum PEM factory in China; Daimler and Volvo setting up their fuel cell truck JV; CHEM Energy building a factory for remote systems in S Africa."
Despite the title of this publication we’ve said before that the fuel cell ‘industry’ is not a single industry at all. As those inside it know it is divided by different materials stages of maturity applications and regions – all contributors to the fact it has taken time to get going. But it does seem to be getting traction. Part of that is down to decades of hard work and investment in R&D technology improvement and demonstrations. Thankfully part of it is also down to changes in external conditions. Improving air quality is increasingly non-negotiable. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions likewise. And all while maintaining economic development and opportunity.
The growth spurt of the battery industry allied with some of the drivers above has catalysed thinking in where and how fuel cells can fit. Countries and regions which did not support batteries early on are scrambling to catch up and wish not to risk a repeat of their errors with fuel cells. So support is being targeted at industrial development and competitiveness as well as solving societal problems. Which in turn is helping industry to decide on and take investment steps: Weichai’s 20000 unit per annum PEM factory in China; Daimler and Volvo setting up their fuel cell truck JV; CHEM Energy building a factory for remote systems in S Africa."
Net Zero in the Heating Sector: Technological Options and Environmental Sustainability from Now to 2050
Jan 2021
Publication
Heating and hot water within buildings account for almost a quarter of global energy consumption. Approximately 90% of this heat is derived directly from the combustion of fossil fuels primarily natural gas leading to the unabated emission of carbon dioxide. This paper assesses the environmental sustainability of a range of heating technologies and scenarios on a life cycle basis. The major technologies considered are natural gas boilers air source heat pumps hydrogen boilers and direct electric heaters. The scenarios use the UK as an example due to its status as a major economy with a legally-binding net-zero carbon target for 2050; they consider plausible future electricity and natural gas mixes including the potential growth of domestic shale gas. The environmental impacts are estimated using ReCiPe 2016. Current gas boilers have a climate change impact of 220 g CO2 eq./kWh of heat which could fall to 64 g CO2 eq./kWh for boilers fuelled by hydrogen derived from natural gas with carbon capture. Heat from electric air source heat pumps or hydrogen from electrolysis can achieve net zero with a decarbonised electricity mix but electrolysis has the highest energy demand of all options which leads to the highest impacts across 17 of the 19 categories. Despite their high carbon emissions gas boilers remain the lowest impact option across 12 categories as they avoid the impacts related to electricity generation including metal depletion toxicities and eutrophication. By 2050 the best performing scenario sees the climate change impact of the heating mix fall by 95%; this is achieved by prioritising electric air source heat pumps without hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants alongside demand reduction. The results show that if infrastructure and financial challenges can be overcome there are several viable decarbonisation strategies for heating with heat pumps offering the most environmentally sustainable option of those considered here. However increased renewable electricity demand may worsen some environmental impacts compared to natural gas boilers.
Development of a Pneumatic Actuated Low-pressure Direct Injection Gas Injector for Hydrogen-fueled Internal Combustion Engines
Dec 2022
Publication
Mixture formation is one of the greatest challenges for the development of robust and efficient hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. In many reviews and research papers authors pointed out that direct injection (DI) has noteworthy advantages over a port fuel injection (PFI) such as higher power output higher efficiency the possibility of mixture stratification to control NOx-formation and reduce heat losses and above all to mitigate combustion abnormalities such as back-firing and pre-ignitions. When considering pressurized gas tanks for on-vehicle hydrogen storage a low-pressure (LP) injection system is advantageous since the tank capacity can be better exploited accordingly. The low gas density upstream of the injector requires cross-sectional areas far larger than any other injectors for direct injection in today's gasoline or diesel engines. The injector design proposed in this work consists of a flat valve seat to enable the achievement of lifetime requirements in heavy-duty applications. The gas supply pressure is used as the energy source for the actuation of the valve plate by means of a pneumatic actuator. This article describes the design and the performed tests carried out to prove the concept readiness of the new LP-DI-injector.
The Renewable Hydrogen–Methane (RHYME) Transportation Fuel: A Practical First Step in the Realization of the Hydrogen Economy
Feb 2022
Publication
The permanent introduction of green hydrogen into the energy economy would require that a discriminating selection be made of its use in the sectors where its value is optimal in terms of relative cost and life cycle reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Consequently hydrogen can be used as an energy storage medium when intermittent wind and solar power exceed certain penetration in the grid likely above 40% and in road transportation right away to begin displacing gasoline and diesel fuels. To this end the proposed approach is to utilize current technologies represented by PHEV in light-duty and HEV in heavy-duty vehicles where a high-performance internal combustion engine is used with a fuel comprised of 15–20% green hydrogen and 85–89% green methane depending on vehicle type. This fuel designated as RHYME takes advantage of the best attributes of hydrogen and methane results in lower life cycle carbon dioxide emissions than BEVs or FCEVs and offers a cost-effective and pragmatic approach both locally as well as globally in establishing hydrogen as part of the energy economy over the next ten to thirty years.
Modelling and Cost Estimation for Conversion of Green Methanol to Renewable Liquid Transport Fuels via Olefin Oligomerisation
Jun 2021
Publication
The ambitious CO2 emission reduction targets for the transport sector set in the Paris Climate Agreement require low-carbon energy solutions that can be commissioned rapidly. The production of gasoline kerosene and diesel from renewable methanol using methanol-to-olefins (MTO) and Mobil’s Olefins to Gasoline and Distillate (MOGD) syntheses was investigated in this study via process simulation and economic analysis. The current work presents a process simulation model comprising liquid fuel production and heat integration. According to the economic analysis the total cost of production was found to be 3409 €/tfuels (273 €/MWhLHV) corresponding to a renewable methanol price of 963 €/t (174 €/MWhLHV). The calculated fuel price is considerably higher than the current cost of fossil fuels and biofuel blending components. The price of renewable methanol which is largely dictated by the cost of electrolytic hydrogen and renewable electricity was found to be the most significant factor affecting the profitability of the MTO-MOGD plant. To reduce the price of renewable fuels and make them economically viable it is recommended that the EU’s sustainable transport policies are enacted to allow flexible and practical solutions to reduce transport-related emissions within the member states.
Hydrogen Refueling Station Networks for Heavy-duty Vehicles in Future Power Systems
May 2020
Publication
A potential solution to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport sector is to use alternatively fuelled vehicles (AFV). Heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) emit a large share of GHG emissions in the transport sector and are therefore the subject of growing attention from global regulators. Fuel cell and green hydrogen technologies are a promising option to decarbonize HDVs as their fast refuelling and long vehicle ranges are consistent with current logistic operational requirements. Moreover the application of green hydrogen in transport could enable more effective integration of renewable energies (RE) across different energy sectors. This paper explores the interplay between HDV Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRS) that produce hydrogen locally and the power system by combining an infrastructure location planning model and an electricity system optimization model that takes grid expansion options into account. Two scenarios – one sizing refuelling stations to support the power system and one sizing them independently of it – are assessed regarding their impacts on the total annual electricity system costs regional RE integration and the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). The impacts are calculated based on locational marginal pricing for 2050. Depending on the integration scenario we find average LCOH of between 4.83 euro/kg and 5.36 euro/kg for which nodal electricity prices are the main determining factor as well as a strong difference in LCOH between north and south Germany. Adding HDV-HRS incurs power transmission expansion as well as higher power supply costs as the total power demand increases. From a system perspective investing in HDV-HRS in symbiosis with the power system rather than independently promises cost savings of around seven billion euros per annum. We therefore conclude that the co-optimization of multiple energy sectors is important for investment planning and has the potential to exploit synergies.
Strategy for Selecting an Optimal Propulsion System of a Liquefied Hydrogen Tanker
Jan 2017
Publication
This study proposed a strategy for selecting an optimal propulsion system of a liquefied hydrogen tanker. Four propulsion system options were conceivable depending on whether the hydrogen BOG (boil-off gas) from the cryogenic cargo tanks was used for fuel or not. These options were evaluated in terms of their economic technological and environmental feasibilities. The comparison scope included not only main machinery but also the BOG handling system with electric generators. Cost-benefit analysis life-cycle costing including carbon tax and an energy efficiency design index were used as measures to compare the four alternative systems. The analytic hierarchy process made scientific decision-making possible. This methodology provided the priority of each attribute through the use of pairwise comparison matrices. Consequently the propulsion system using LNG with hydrogen BOG recovery was determined to be the optimal alternative. This system was appropriate for the tanker that achieved the highest evaluation score.
Biomass Derived Porous Nitrogen Doped Carbon for Electrochemical Devices
Mar 2017
Publication
Biomass derived porous nanostructured nitrogen doped carbon (PNC) has been extensively investigated as the electrode material for electrochemical catalytic reactions and rechargeable batteries. Biomass with and without containing nitrogen could be designed and optimized to prepare PNC via hydrothermal carbonization pyrolysis and other methods. The presence of nitrogen in carbon can provide more active sites for ion absorption improve the electronic conductivity increase the bonding between carbon and sulfur and enhance the electrochemical catalytic reaction. The synthetic methods of natural biomass derived PNC heteroatomic co- or tri-doping into biomass derived carbon and the application of biomass derived PNC in rechargeable Li/Na batteries high energy density Li–S batteries supercapacitors metal-air batteries and electrochemical catalytic reaction (oxygen reduction and evolution reactions hydrogen evolution reaction) are summarized and discussed in this review. Biomass derived PNCs deliver high performance electrochemical storage properties for rechargeable batteries/supercapacitors and superior electrochemical catalytic performance toward hydrogen evolution oxygen reduction and evolution as promising electrodes for electrochemical devices including battery technologies fuel cell and electrolyzer.
An Energy Autonomous House Equipped with a Solar PV Hydrogen Conversion System
Dec 2015
Publication
The use of RES in buildings is difficult for their random nature; therefore the plants using photovoltaic solar collectors must be connected to a power supply or interconnected with Energy accumulators if the building is isolated. The conversion of electricity into hydrogen technology is best suited to solve the problem and allows you to transfer the solar energy captured from day to night from summer to winter. This paper presents the feasibility study for a house powered by PV cogeneration solar collectors that reverse the electricity on the control unit that you command by a PC to power the household using a heat pump an electrolytic cell for the production of hydrogen to accumulate; control units sorting to the utilities the electricity produced by the fuel cell. The following are presented: The Energy analysis of the building the plant design economic analysis.
Advancing Europe's Energy Systems- Stationary Fuel Cells in Distributed Generation
Mar 2015
Publication
Stationary fuel cells can play a beneficial role in Europe's changing energy landscape. The energy systems across Europe face significant challenges as they evolve against the backdrop of an ambitious climate agenda. As energy systems integrate more and more generation capacity from intermittent renewables numerous challenges arise. Amongst others Europe's energy systems of the future require new concepts for complementary supply such as efficient distributed power generation from natural gas. At the same time significant investments to modernise the electricity grid infrastructure are needed. Long-term storage solutions become a growing priority to ensure permanent power supply e.g. power-to-gas. Moreover Europe puts greater emphasis on energy efficiency in order to save primary energy reduce fuel imports and increase energy security.
Against this background distributed generation from stationary fuel cells promises significant benefits. This study outlines a pathway for commercialising stationary fuel cells in Europe The present study outlines a pathway for commercialising stationary fuel cells in Europe. It produces a comprehensive account of the current and future market potential for fuel cell distributed energy generation in Europe benchmarks stationary fuel cell technologies against competing conventional technologies in a variety of use cases and assesses potential business models for commercialisation. Considering the results of the technological and commercial analysis the study pinpoints focus areas for further R&D to sustain innovation and provides recommendations for supportive policy frameworks.
The study has been sponsored by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking. Compiled by Roland Berger Strategy Consultants it builds on an interactive approach involving a coalition of more than 30 companies public institutions and associations from the stakeholder community of the European stationary fuel cell industry.
Against this background distributed generation from stationary fuel cells promises significant benefits. This study outlines a pathway for commercialising stationary fuel cells in Europe The present study outlines a pathway for commercialising stationary fuel cells in Europe. It produces a comprehensive account of the current and future market potential for fuel cell distributed energy generation in Europe benchmarks stationary fuel cell technologies against competing conventional technologies in a variety of use cases and assesses potential business models for commercialisation. Considering the results of the technological and commercial analysis the study pinpoints focus areas for further R&D to sustain innovation and provides recommendations for supportive policy frameworks.
The study has been sponsored by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking. Compiled by Roland Berger Strategy Consultants it builds on an interactive approach involving a coalition of more than 30 companies public institutions and associations from the stakeholder community of the European stationary fuel cell industry.
A Review on Synthesis of Methane as a Pathway for Renewable Energy Storage With a Focus on Solid Oxide Electrolytic Cell-Based Processes
Sep 2020
Publication
Environmental issues related to global warming are constantly pushing the fossil fuel-based energy sector toward an efficient and economically viable utilization of renewable energy. However challenges related to renewable energy call for alternative routes of its conversion to fuels and chemicals by an emerging Power-to-X approach. Methane is one such high-valued fuel that can be produced through renewables-powered electrolytic routes. Such routes employ alkaline electrolyzers proton exchange membrane electrolyzers and solid oxide electrolyzers commonly known as solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs). SOECs have the potential to utilize the waste heat generated from exothermic methanation reactions to reduce the expensive electrical energy input required for electrolysis. A further advantage of an SOEC lies in its capacity to co-electrolyze both steam and carbon dioxide as opposed to only water and this inherent capability of an SOEC can be harnessed for in situ synthesis of methane within a single reactor. However the concept of in situ methanation in SOECs is still at a nascent stage and requires significant advancements in SOEC materials particularly in developing a cathode electrocatalyst that demonstrates activity toward both steam electrolysis and methanation reactions. Equally important is the appropriate reactor design along with optimization of cell operating conditions (temperature pressure and applied potential). This review elucidates those developments along with research and development opportunities in this space. Also presented here is an efficiency comparison of different routes of synthetic methane production using SOECs in various modes that is as a source of hydrogen syngas and hydrogen/carbon dioxide mixture and for in situ methane synthesis.
A Study on Electrofuels in Aviation
Feb 2018
Publication
With the growth of aviation traffic and the demand for emission reduction alternative fuels like the so-called electrofuels could comprise a sustainable solution. Electrofuels are understood as those that use renewable energy for fuel synthesis and that are carbon-neutral with respect to greenhouse gas emission. In this study five potential electrofuels are discussed with respect to the potential application as aviation fuels being n-octane methanol methane hydrogen and ammonia and compared to conventional Jet A-1 fuel. Three important aspects are illuminated. Firstly the synthesis process of the electrofuel is described with its technological paths its energy efficiency and the maturity or research need of the production. Secondly the physico-chemical properties are compared with respect to specific energy energy density as well as those properties relevant to the combustion of the fuels i.e. autoignition delay time adiabatic flame temperature laminar flame speed and extinction strain rate. Results show that the physical and combustion properties significantly differ from jet fuel except for n-octane. The results describe how the different electrofuels perform with respect to important aspects such as fuel and air mass flow rates. In addition the results help determine mixture properties of the exhaust gas for each electrofuel. Thirdly a turbine configuration is investigated at a constant operating point to further analyze the drop-in potential of electrofuels in aircraft engines. It is found that electrofuels can generally substitute conventional kerosene-based fuels but have some downsides in the form of higher structural loads and potentially lower efficiencies. Finally a preliminary comparative evaluation matrix is developed. It contains specifically those fields for the different proposed electrofuels where special challenges and problematic points are seen that need more research for potential application. Synthetically-produced n-octane is seen as a potential candidate for a future electrofuel where even a drop-in capability is given. For the other fuels more issues need further research to allow the application as electrofuels in aviation. Specifically interesting could be the combination of hydrogen with ammonia in the far future; however the research is just at the beginning stage.
Industrial Robots Fuel Cell Based Hybrid Power-Trains: A Comparison between Different Configurations
Jun 2021
Publication
Electric vehicles are becoming more and more popular. One of the most promising possible solutions is one where a hybrid powertrain made up of a FC (Fuel Cell) and a battery is used. This type of vehicle offers great autonomy and high recharging speed which makes them ideal for many industrial applications. In this work three ways to build a hybrid power-train are presented and compared. To illustrate this the case of an industrial robot designed to move loads within a fully automated factory is used. The analysis and comparison are carried out through different objective criteria that indicate the power-train performance in different battery charge levels. The hybrid configurations are tested using real power profiles of the industrial robot. Finally simulation results show the performance of each hybrid configuration in terms of hydrogen consumption battery and FC degradation and dc bus voltage and current regulation.
Reaching Zero with Renewables
Sep 2020
Publication
Patrick Akerman,
Pierpaolo Cazzola,
Emma Skov Christiansen,
Renée Van Heusden,
Joanna Kolomanska-van Iperen,
Johannah Christensen,
Kilian Crone,
Keith Dawe,
Guillaume De Smedt,
Alex Keynes,
Anaïs Laporte,
Florie Gonsolin,
Marko Mensink,
Charlotte Hebebrand,
Volker Hoenig,
Chris Malins,
Thomas Neuenhahn,
Ireneusz Pyc,
Andrew Purvis,
Deger Saygin,
Carol Xiao and
Yufeng Yang
Eliminating CO2 emissions from industry and transport in line with the 1.5⁰C climate goal
To avoid catastrophic climate change the world needs to reach zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in all all sectors of the economy by the 2050s. Effective energy decarbonisation presents a major challenge especially in key industry and transport sectors.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has produced a comprehensive study of deep decarbonisation options focused on reaching zero into time to fulfil the Paris Agreement and hold the line on rising global temperatures.
Several sectors stand out as especially hard to decarbonise. Four of the most energy-intensive industries (iron and steel chemicals and petrochemicals cement and lime and aluminium) and three key transport sectors (road freight aviation and shipping) could together account for 38% of energy and process emissions and 43% of final energy use by 2050 without major policy changes now the report finds.
Reaching zero with renewables considers how these sectors could achieve zero emissions by 2060 and assesses the use of renewables and related technologies to achieve this. Decarbonisation options for each sector span efficiency improvements electrification direct heat and fuel production using renewables along with CO2 removal measures.
Without such measures energy and process emissions could amount to 11.4 gigatonnes from industry and 8.6 gigatonnes from transport at mid-century the report indicates. Along with sector-specific actions cross-cutting actions are needed at higher levels.
The report offers ten broad recommendations for industries and governments:
1. Pursue a renewables-based strategy for end-use sectors with an end goal of zero emissions.
2. Develop a shared vision and strategy and co-develop practical roadmaps involving all major players.
3. Build confidence and knowledge among decision makers.
4. Plan and deploy enabling infrastructure early on.
5. Foster early demand for green products and services.
6. Develop tailored approaches to ensure access to finance.
7. Collaborate across borders.
8. Think globally while utilising national strengths.
9. Establish clear pathways for the evolution of regulations and international standards.
10. Support research development and systemic innovation.
With the right plans and sufficient support the goal of reaching zero is achievable the report shows.
To avoid catastrophic climate change the world needs to reach zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in all all sectors of the economy by the 2050s. Effective energy decarbonisation presents a major challenge especially in key industry and transport sectors.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has produced a comprehensive study of deep decarbonisation options focused on reaching zero into time to fulfil the Paris Agreement and hold the line on rising global temperatures.
Several sectors stand out as especially hard to decarbonise. Four of the most energy-intensive industries (iron and steel chemicals and petrochemicals cement and lime and aluminium) and three key transport sectors (road freight aviation and shipping) could together account for 38% of energy and process emissions and 43% of final energy use by 2050 without major policy changes now the report finds.
Reaching zero with renewables considers how these sectors could achieve zero emissions by 2060 and assesses the use of renewables and related technologies to achieve this. Decarbonisation options for each sector span efficiency improvements electrification direct heat and fuel production using renewables along with CO2 removal measures.
Without such measures energy and process emissions could amount to 11.4 gigatonnes from industry and 8.6 gigatonnes from transport at mid-century the report indicates. Along with sector-specific actions cross-cutting actions are needed at higher levels.
The report offers ten broad recommendations for industries and governments:
1. Pursue a renewables-based strategy for end-use sectors with an end goal of zero emissions.
2. Develop a shared vision and strategy and co-develop practical roadmaps involving all major players.
3. Build confidence and knowledge among decision makers.
4. Plan and deploy enabling infrastructure early on.
5. Foster early demand for green products and services.
6. Develop tailored approaches to ensure access to finance.
7. Collaborate across borders.
8. Think globally while utilising national strengths.
9. Establish clear pathways for the evolution of regulations and international standards.
10. Support research development and systemic innovation.
With the right plans and sufficient support the goal of reaching zero is achievable the report shows.
Renewable Energy Policies in a Time of Transition: Heating and Cooling
Nov 2020
Publication
Heating and cooling accounts for almost half of global energy consumption. With most of this relying fossil fuels however it contributes heavily to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. In parts of the world lacking modern energy access meanwhile inefficient biomass use for cooking also harms people’s health damages the environment and reduces social well-being.
The transition to renewable-based energy-efficient heating and cooling could follow several possible pathways depending on energy demand resource availability and the needs and priorities of each country or region. Broad options include electrification with renewable power renewable-based gases (including “green” hydrogen) sustainable bioenergy use and the direct use of solar and geothermal heat.
This report developed jointly by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21) outlines the infrastructure and policies needed with each transition pathway. This edition focused on renewable-based heating and cooling follows a broader initial study Renewable Energy Policies in a Time of Transition (IRENA IEA and REN21 2018).
The shift to renewables for heating and cooling requires enabling infrastructure (e.g. gas grids district heating and cooling networks) as well as various combinations of deployment integrating and enabling policies. The policy framework can demonstrate a country’s commitment to the energy transition level the playing field with fossil fuels and create the necessary enabling conditions to attract investments.
Along with highlighting country experiences and best practices the study identifies barriers and highlights policy options for renewable heating and cooling.
Key recommendations include:
The transition to renewable-based energy-efficient heating and cooling could follow several possible pathways depending on energy demand resource availability and the needs and priorities of each country or region. Broad options include electrification with renewable power renewable-based gases (including “green” hydrogen) sustainable bioenergy use and the direct use of solar and geothermal heat.
This report developed jointly by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21) outlines the infrastructure and policies needed with each transition pathway. This edition focused on renewable-based heating and cooling follows a broader initial study Renewable Energy Policies in a Time of Transition (IRENA IEA and REN21 2018).
The shift to renewables for heating and cooling requires enabling infrastructure (e.g. gas grids district heating and cooling networks) as well as various combinations of deployment integrating and enabling policies. The policy framework can demonstrate a country’s commitment to the energy transition level the playing field with fossil fuels and create the necessary enabling conditions to attract investments.
Along with highlighting country experiences and best practices the study identifies barriers and highlights policy options for renewable heating and cooling.
Key recommendations include:
- Setting specific targets and developing an integrated long-term plan for the decarbonisation of heating and cooling in all end-uses including buildings industry and cooking and productive uses in areas with limited energy access.
- Creating a level playing field by phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies and introducing other fiscal policies to internalise environmental and socio-economic costs.
- Combining the electrification of heating and cooling with increasingly cost-competitive renewable power generation scaling up solar and wind use and boosting system flexibility via energy storage heat pumps and efficient electric appliances.
- Harnessing existing gas networks to accommodate renewable gases such as biogas and green hydrogen.
- Introducing standards certification and testing policies to promote the sustainable use of biomass combining efficient systems and bioenergy solutions such as pellets briquettes bioethanol or anaerobic digestion.
- Reducing investment risks for geothermal exploration and scaling up direct use of geothermal heat.
- Improving district heating and cooling networks through energy efficiency measures and the integration of low-temperature solar thermal geothermal and other renewable-based heat sources.
- Supporting clean cooking and introducing renewable-based food drying in areas lacking energy access with a combination of financing mechanisms capacity building and quality standards aimed at improving livelihoods and maximising socio-economic benefits.
City Blood: A Visionary Infrastructure Solution for Household Energy Provision through Water Distribution Networks
May 2013
Publication
This paper aims to expand current thinking about the future of energy and water utility provision by presenting a radical idea: it proposes a combined delivery system for household energy and water utilities which is inspired by an analogy with the human body. It envisions a multi-functional infrastructure for cities of the future modelled on the human circulatory system. Red blood cells play a crucial role as energy carriers in biological energy distribution; they are suspended in the blood and distributed around the body to fuel the living cells. So why not use an analogous system e an urban circulatory system or “city blood” e to deliver energy and water simultaneously via one dedicated pipeline system? This paper focuses on analysing the scientific technological and economic feasibilities and hurdles which would need to be overcome in order to achieve this idea.<br/>We present a rationale for the requirement of an improved household utility delivery infrastructure and discuss the inspirational analogy; the technological components required to realise the vignette are also discussed. We identify the most significant advance requirement for the proposal to succeed: the utilisation of solid or liquid substrate materials delivered through water pipelines; their benefits and risks are discussed.
Combination of b-Fuels and e-Fuels—A Technological Feasibility Study
Aug 2021
Publication
The energy supply in Austria is significantly based on fossil natural gas. Due to the necessary decarbonization of the heat and energy sector a switch to a green substitute is necessary to limit CO2 emissions. Especially innovative concepts such as power-to-gas establish the connection between the storage of volatile renewable energy and its conversion into green gases. In this paper different methanation strategies are applied on syngas from biomass gasification. The investigated syngas compositions range from traditional steam gasification sorption-enhanced reforming to the innovative CO2 gasification. As the producer gases show different compositions regarding the H2/COx ratio three possible methanation strategies (direct sub-stoichiometric and over-stoichiometric methanation) are defined and assessed with technological evaluation tools for possible future large-scale set-ups consisting of a gasification an electrolysis and a methanation unit. Due to its relative high share of hydrogen and the high technical maturity of this gasification mode syngas from steam gasification represents the most promising gas composition for downstream methanation. Sub-stoichiometric operation of this syngas with limited H2 dosage represents an attractive methanation strategy since the hydrogen utilization is optimized. The overall efficiency of the sub-stoichiometric methanation lies at 59.9%. Determined by laboratory methanation experiments a share of nearly 17 mol.% of CO2 needs to be separated to make injection into the natural gas grid possible. A technical feasible alternative avoiding possible carbon formation in the methanation reactor is the direct methanation of sorption-enhanced reforming syngas with an overall process efficiency in large-scale applications of 55.9%.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles—A Brief Review of Current Topologies and Energy Management Strategies
Jan 2021
Publication
With the development of technologies in recent decades and the imposition of international standards to reduce greenhouse gas emissions car manufacturers have turned their attention to new technologies related to electric/hybrid vehicles and electric fuel cell vehicles. This paper focuses on electric fuel cell vehicles which optimally combine the fuel cell system with hybrid energy storage systems represented by batteries and ultracapacitors to meet the dynamic power demand required by the electric motor and auxiliary systems. This paper compares the latest proposed topologies for fuel cell electric vehicles and reveals the new technologies and DC/DC converters involved to generate up-to-date information for researchers and developers interested in this specialized field. From a software point of view the latest energy management strategies are analyzed and compared with the reference strategies taking into account performance indicators such as energy efficiency hydrogen consumption and degradation of the subsystems involved which is the main challenge for car developers. The advantages and disadvantages of three types of strategies (rule-based strategies optimization-based strategies and learning-based strategies) are discussed. Thus future software developers can focus on new control algorithms in the area of artificial intelligence developed to meet the challenges posed by new technologies for autonomous vehicles.
Micro Gas Turbine Role in Distributed Generation with Renewable Energy Sources
Jan 2023
Publication
To become sustainable the production of electricity has been oriented towards the adoption of local and renewable sources. Distributed electric and thermal energy generation is more suitable to avoid any possible waste and the Micro Gas Turbine (MGT) can play a key role in this scenario. Due to the intrinsic properties and the high flexibility of operation of this energy conversion system the exploitation of alternative fuels and the integration of the MGT itself with other energy conversion systems (solar field ORC fuel cells) represent one of the most effective strategies to achieve higher conversion efficiencies and to reduce emissions from power systems. The present work aims to review the results obtained by the researchers in the last years. The different technologies are analyzed in detail both separately and under a more complete view considering two or more solutions embedded in micro-grid configurations.
Exergetic Aspects of Hydrogen Energy Systems—The Case Study of a Fuel Cell Bus
Feb 2017
Publication
Electrifying transportation is a promising approach to alleviate climate change issues arising from increased emissions. This study examines a system for the production of hydrogen using renewable energy sources as well as its use in buses. The electricity requirements for the production of hydrogen through the electrolysis of water are covered by renewable energy sources. Fuel cells are being used to utilize hydrogen to power the bus. Exergy analysis for the system is carried out. Based on a steady-state model of the processes exergy efficiencies are calculated for all subsystems. The subsystems with the highest proportion of irreversibility are identified and compared. It is shown that PV panel has exergetic efficiency of 12.74% wind turbine of 45% electrolysis of 67% and fuel cells of 40%.
Hybrid Electric Powertrain with Fuel Cells for a Series Vehicle
May 2018
Publication
Recent environmental and climate change issues make it imperative to persistently approach research into the development of technologies designed to ensure the sustainability of global mobility. At the European Union level the transport sector is responsible for approximately 28% of greenhouse gas emissions and 84% of them are associated with road transport. One of the most effective ways to enhance the de-carbonization process of the transport sector is through the promotion of electric propulsion which involves overcoming barriers related to reduced driving autonomy and the long time required to recharge the batteries. This paper develops and implements a method meant to increase the autonomy and reduce the battery charging time of an electric car to comparable levels of an internal combustion engine vehicle. By doing so the cost of such vehicles is the only remaining significant barrier in the way of a mass spread of electric propulsion. The chosen method is to hybridize the electric powertrain by using an additional source of fuel; hydrogen gas stored in pressurized cylinders is converted in situ into electrical energy by means of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The power generated on board can then be used under the command of a dedicated management system for battery charging leading to an increase in the vehicle’s autonomy. Modeling and simulation results served to easily adjust the size of the fuel cell hybrid electric powertrain. After optimization an actual fuel cell was built and implemented on a vehicle that used the body of a Jeep Wrangler from which the thermal engine associated subassemblies and gearbox were removed. Once completed the vehicle was tested in traffic conditions and its functional performance was established.
Decarbonizing Copper Production by Power-to-Hydrogen A Techno-Economic Analysis
Apr 2021
Publication
Electrifying energy-intensive processes is currently intensively explored to cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through renewable electricity. Electrification is particularly challenging if fossil resources are not only used for energy supply but also as feedstock. Copper production is such an energy-intensive process consuming large quantities of fossil fuels both as reducing agent and as energy supply.
Here we explore the techno-economic potential of Power-to-Hydrogen to decarbonize copper production. To determine the minimal cost of an on-site retrofit with Power-to-Hydrogen technology we formulate and solve a mixed-integer linear program for the integrated system. Under current techno-economic parameters for Germany the resulting direct CO2 abatement cost is 201 EUR/t CO2-eq for Power-to-Hydrogen in copper production. On-site utilization of the electrolysis by-product oxygen has a substantial economic benefit. While the abatement cost vastly exceeds current European emission certificate prices a sensitivity analysis shows that projected future developments in Power-to-Hydrogen technologies can greatly reduce the direct CO2 abatement cost to 54 EUR/t CO2-eq. An analysis of the total GHG emissions shows that decarbonization through Power-to-Hydrogen reduces the global GHG emissions only if the emission factor of the electricity supply lies below 160 g CO2-eq/kWhel.
The results suggest that decarbonization of copper production by Power-to-Hydrogen could become economically and environmentally beneficial over the next decades due to cheaper and more efficient Power-to-Hydrogen technology rising GHG emission certificate prices and further decarbonization of the electricity supply.
Here we explore the techno-economic potential of Power-to-Hydrogen to decarbonize copper production. To determine the minimal cost of an on-site retrofit with Power-to-Hydrogen technology we formulate and solve a mixed-integer linear program for the integrated system. Under current techno-economic parameters for Germany the resulting direct CO2 abatement cost is 201 EUR/t CO2-eq for Power-to-Hydrogen in copper production. On-site utilization of the electrolysis by-product oxygen has a substantial economic benefit. While the abatement cost vastly exceeds current European emission certificate prices a sensitivity analysis shows that projected future developments in Power-to-Hydrogen technologies can greatly reduce the direct CO2 abatement cost to 54 EUR/t CO2-eq. An analysis of the total GHG emissions shows that decarbonization through Power-to-Hydrogen reduces the global GHG emissions only if the emission factor of the electricity supply lies below 160 g CO2-eq/kWhel.
The results suggest that decarbonization of copper production by Power-to-Hydrogen could become economically and environmentally beneficial over the next decades due to cheaper and more efficient Power-to-Hydrogen technology rising GHG emission certificate prices and further decarbonization of the electricity supply.
Role of batteries and fuel cells in achieving Net Zero: Session 2
Mar 2021
Publication
The House of Lords Science and Technology Committee will hear from leading researchers about anticipated developments in batteries and fuel cells over the next ten years that could contribute to meeting the net-zero target.
The Committee continues its inquiry into the Role of batteries and fuel cells in achieving Net Zero. It will ask a panel of experts about batteries hearing about the current state-of-the-art in technologies that are currently in deployment primarily lithium-ion batteries. It will also explore the potential of next generation technologies currently in development and the challenges in scaling them up to manufacture.
The Committee will then question a second panel about fuel cells hearing about the different types available and their applications. It will explore challenges that need to be overcome in the development of the technology and will consider the UK’s international standing in the sector.
Meeting details
At 10.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Serena Corr Chair in Functional Nanomaterials and Director of Research Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at University of Sheffield
Professor Paul Shearing Professor in Chemical Engineering at University College London
Dr Jerry Barker Founder and Chief Technology Officer at Faradion Limited
Dr Melanie Loveridge Associate Professor Warwick Manufacturing Group at University of Warwick
At 11.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Andrea Russell Professor of Physical Electrochemistry at University of Southampton
Professor Anthony Kucernak Professor of Physical Chemistry Faculty of Natural Sciences at Imperial College London
Professor John Irvine Professor School of Chemistry at University of St Andrews
Possible questions
Parliament TV video of the meeting
This is part two of a three part enquiry.
Part one can be found here and part three can be found here.
The Committee continues its inquiry into the Role of batteries and fuel cells in achieving Net Zero. It will ask a panel of experts about batteries hearing about the current state-of-the-art in technologies that are currently in deployment primarily lithium-ion batteries. It will also explore the potential of next generation technologies currently in development and the challenges in scaling them up to manufacture.
The Committee will then question a second panel about fuel cells hearing about the different types available and their applications. It will explore challenges that need to be overcome in the development of the technology and will consider the UK’s international standing in the sector.
Meeting details
At 10.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Serena Corr Chair in Functional Nanomaterials and Director of Research Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at University of Sheffield
Professor Paul Shearing Professor in Chemical Engineering at University College London
Dr Jerry Barker Founder and Chief Technology Officer at Faradion Limited
Dr Melanie Loveridge Associate Professor Warwick Manufacturing Group at University of Warwick
At 11.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Andrea Russell Professor of Physical Electrochemistry at University of Southampton
Professor Anthony Kucernak Professor of Physical Chemistry Faculty of Natural Sciences at Imperial College London
Professor John Irvine Professor School of Chemistry at University of St Andrews
Possible questions
- What contribution are battery and fuel cell technologies currently making towards decarbonization in the UK?
- What advances do we expect to see in battery and fuel cell technologies and over what timeframes?
- How quickly can UK battery and fuel cell manufacture be scaled up to meet electrification demands?
- What are the challenges facing technological innovation and deployment in heavy transport?
- Are there any sectors where battery and fuel cell technologies are not currently used but could contribute to decarbonisation?
- What are the life cycle environmental impacts of batteries and fuel cells?
Parliament TV video of the meeting
This is part two of a three part enquiry.
Part one can be found here and part three can be found here.
Fuel Cell Industry Review 2019 - The Year of the Gigawatt
Jan 2020
Publication
E4tech’s 6th annual review of the global fuel cell industry is now available here. Using primary data straight from the main players and free to download it quantifies shipments by fuel cell type by application and by region of deployment and summarises industry developments over the year.
2019 saw shipments globally grow significantly to 1.1 GW. Numbers grew slightly to around 70000 units. The growth in capacity came mainly from cars Hyundai with its NEXO and Toyota with its Mirai together accounting for around two-thirds of shipments by capacity. Unit numbers are still dominated by Japan’s ene-Farm cogeneration appliances at around 45000 shipments. Large numbers of trucks and buses are now manufactured and shipped in China though numbers deployed are limited by the availability of refuelling infrastructure. But growth in China is uncertain as policy changes are under discussion.
2020 looks like it will be an even bigger year again dominated by Hyundai and Toyota. The Japanese fuel cell market is expected also to grow partly on the back of the Tokyo ‘Hydrogen Olympics’. Korea is another growth story buoyed by its latest roadmap which aims to shift large swathes of its economy to hydrogen energy by 2040. Elsewhere much of the supply chain development is in heavy duty vehicles and big supply chain players like Cummins Weichai and Michelin are making significant investments.
2019 saw shipments globally grow significantly to 1.1 GW. Numbers grew slightly to around 70000 units. The growth in capacity came mainly from cars Hyundai with its NEXO and Toyota with its Mirai together accounting for around two-thirds of shipments by capacity. Unit numbers are still dominated by Japan’s ene-Farm cogeneration appliances at around 45000 shipments. Large numbers of trucks and buses are now manufactured and shipped in China though numbers deployed are limited by the availability of refuelling infrastructure. But growth in China is uncertain as policy changes are under discussion.
2020 looks like it will be an even bigger year again dominated by Hyundai and Toyota. The Japanese fuel cell market is expected also to grow partly on the back of the Tokyo ‘Hydrogen Olympics’. Korea is another growth story buoyed by its latest roadmap which aims to shift large swathes of its economy to hydrogen energy by 2040. Elsewhere much of the supply chain development is in heavy duty vehicles and big supply chain players like Cummins Weichai and Michelin are making significant investments.
Unpacking Leadership-driven Global Scenarios Towards the Paris Agreement: Report Prepared for the UK Committee on Climate Change
Dec 2020
Publication
Outline
This independent report by Vivid Economics and University College London was commissioned to support the Climate Change Committee’s (CCC) 2020 report The Sixth Carbon Budget -The path to Net Zero. This research provided supporting information for Chapter 7 of the CCC’s report which considered the UK’s contribution to the global goals of the Paris Agreement.
Key recommendations
The report models ‘leadership-driven’ global scenarios that could reduce global emissions rapidly to Net Zero and analyses the levers available to developed countries such as the UK to help accelerate various key aspects of the required global transition.
It highlights a set of opportunities for the UK alongside other developed countries to help assist global decarbonisation efforts alongside achieving it’s domestic emissions reduction targets
This independent report by Vivid Economics and University College London was commissioned to support the Climate Change Committee’s (CCC) 2020 report The Sixth Carbon Budget -The path to Net Zero. This research provided supporting information for Chapter 7 of the CCC’s report which considered the UK’s contribution to the global goals of the Paris Agreement.
Key recommendations
The report models ‘leadership-driven’ global scenarios that could reduce global emissions rapidly to Net Zero and analyses the levers available to developed countries such as the UK to help accelerate various key aspects of the required global transition.
It highlights a set of opportunities for the UK alongside other developed countries to help assist global decarbonisation efforts alongside achieving it’s domestic emissions reduction targets
Test Campaign on Existing HRS & Dissemination of Results
Apr 2019
Publication
This document is the final deliverable of Tasks 2 & 3 of the tender N° FCH / OP / CONTRACT 196: “Development of a Metering Protocol for Hydrogen Refuelling Stations”. In Task 2 a test campaign was organized on several HRS in Europe to apply the testing protocol defined in Task 1. This protocol requires mainly to perform different accuracy tests in order to determine the error of the complete measuring system (i.e. from the mass flow meter to the nozzle) in real fueling conditions. Seven HRS have been selected to fulfill the requirements specified in the tender. Tests results obtained are presented in this deliverable and conclusions are proposed to explain the errors observed. In the frame of Task 3 results and conclusions have been widely presented to additional Metrology Institutes than those involved in Task 1 in order to get their adhesion on the testing proposed protocol. All the work performed in Tasks 2 & 3 and associated outcomes / conclusions are reported here.
Study Navigating the Way to a Renewable Future – Solutions to Decarbonise Shipping
Sep 2019
Publication
On average the shipping sector is responsible for 3% of annual global green-house gas emissions on a CO2-equivalent basis. International shipping represents around 9% of the global emissions associated with the transport sector.<br/>This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) explores the impact of maritime shipping on CO2 emissions the structure of the shipping sector and key areas that need to be addressed to reduce the sector’s carbon footprint.<br/>There is no clear-cut path to decarbonisation. Cutting CO2 emissions in half is therefore likely to require a combination of approaches including the use of alternative fuels upgrading of onshore infrastructure and reducing fuel demand by improving operational performance the report finds.<br/>The shipping sector is strategically important for global efforts against climate change and could be crucial in the long-term shift to a zero-carbon economy. Large-scale deployment of low-carbon fuel infrastructure for shipping could also help to build the necessary momentum to decarbonise other sectors.
Ultrasonic-assisted Catalytic Transfer Hydrogenation for Upgrading Pyrolysis-oil
Feb 2021
Publication
Recent interest in biomass-based fuel blendstocks and chemical compounds has stimulated research efforts on conversion and upgrading pathways which are considered as critical commercialization drivers. Existing pre-/post-conversion pathways are energy intense (e.g. pyrolysis and hydrogenation) and economically unsustainable thus more efficient process solutions can result in supporting the renewable fuels and green chemicals industry. This study proposes a process including biomass conversion and bio-oil upgrading using mixed fast and slow pyrolysis conversion pathway as well as sono-catalytic transfer hydrogenation (SCTH) treatment process. The proposed SCTH treatment employs ammonium formate as a hydrogen transfer additive and palladium supported on carbon as the catalyst. Utilizing SCTH bio-oil molecular bonds were broken and restructured via the phenomena of cavitation rarefaction and hydrogenation with the resulting product composition investigated using ultimate analysis and spectroscopy. Additionally an in-line characterization approach is proposed using near-infrared spectroscopy calibrated by multivariate analysis and modelling. The results indicate the potentiality of ultrasonic cavitation catalytic transfer hydrogenation and SCTH for incorporating hydrogen into the organic phase of bio-oil. It is concluded that the integration of pyrolysis with SCTH can improve bio-oil for enabling the production of fuel blendstocks and chemical compounds from lignocellulosic biomass.
Energy System Requirements of Fossil-free Steelmaking using Hydrogen Direct Reduction
May 2021
Publication
The iron and steel industry is one of the world’s largest industrial emitters of greenhouse gases. One promising option for decarbonising the industry is hydrogen direct reduction of iron (H-DR) with electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking powered by zero carbon electricity. However to date little attention has been given to the energy system requirements of adopting such a highly energy-intensive process. This study integrates a newly developed long-term energy system planning tool with a thermodynamic process model of H-DR/EAF steelmaking developed by Vogl et al. (2018) to assess the optimal combination of generation and storage technologies needed to provide a reliable supply of electricity and hydrogen. The modelling tools can be applied to any country or region and their use is demonstrated here by application to the UK iron and steel industry as a case study. It is found that the optimal energy system comprises 1.3 GW of electrolysers 3 GW of wind power 2.5 GW of solar 60 MW of combined cycle gas with carbon capture 600 GWh/600 MW of hydrogen storage and 30 GWh/130 MW of compressed air energy storage. The hydrogen storage requirements of the industry can be significantly reduced by maintaining some dispatchable generation for example from 600 GWh with no restriction on dispatchable generation to 140 GWh if 20% of electricity demand is met using dispatchable generation. The marginal abatement costs of a switch to hydrogen-based steelmaking are projected to be less than carbon price forecasts within 5–10 years.
Renewable Hydrogen for the Chemical Industry
Aug 2020
Publication
Hydrogen is often touted as the fuel of the future but hydrogen is already an important feedstock for the chemical industry. This review highlights current means for hydrogen production and use and the importance of progressing R&D along key technologies and policies to drive a cost reduction in renewable hydrogen production and enable the transition of chemical manufacturing toward green hydrogen as a feedstock and fuel. The chemical industry is at the core of what is considered a modern economy. It provides commodities and important materials e.g. fertilizers synthetic textiles and drug precursors supporting economies and more broadly our needs. The chemical sector is to become the major driver for oil production by 2030 as it entirely relies on sufficient oil supply. In this respect renewable hydrogen has an important role to play beyond its use in the transport sector. Hydrogen not only has three times the energy density of natural gas and using hydrogen as a fuel could help decarbonize the entire chemical manufacturing but also the use of green hydrogen as an essential reactant at the basis of many chemical products could facilitate the convergence toward virtuous circles. Enabling the production of green hydrogen at cost could not only enable new opportunities but also strengthen economies through a localized production and use of hydrogen. Herein existing technologies for the production of renewable hydrogen including biomass and water electrolysis and methods for the effective storage of hydrogen are reviewed with an emphasis on the need for mitigation strategies to enable such a transition.
Controller Design for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Systems for Automotive Applications
May 2021
Publication
Continuous developments in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) make them a promising technology to achieve zero emissions in multiple applications including mobility. Incremental advancements in fuel cells materials and manufacture processes make them now suitable for commercialization. However the complex operation of fuel cell systems in automotive applications has some open issues yet. This work develops and compares three different controllers for PEMFC systems in automotive applications. All the controllers have a cascade control structure where a generator of setpoints sends references to the subsystems controllers with the objective to maximize operational efficiency. To develop the setpoints generators two techniques are evaluated: off-line optimization and Model Predictive Control (MPC). With the first technique the optimal setpoints are given by a map obtained off-line of the optimal steady state conditions and corresponding setpoints. With the second technique the setpoints time profiles that maximize the efficiency in an incoming time horizon are continuously computed. The proposed MPC architecture divides the fast and slow dynamics in order to reduce the computational cost. Two different MPC solutions have been implemented to deal with this fast/slow dynamics separation. After the integration of the setpoints generators with the subsystems controllers the different control systems are tested and compared using a dynamic detailed model of the automotive system in the INN-BALANCE project running under the New European Driving Cycle.
Development and Comparison of the Test Methods Proposed in the Chinese Test Specifications for Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
Feb 2022
Publication
Fuel cell electric vehicles are generally considered to have broad development prospects due to their high efficiency and zero emissions. The governments of the United States Japan the European Union and China are taking action to promote the development of the industry. In 2020 China launched a fuel cell electric vehicle demonstration project and there will be 30∼50 thousand FCEVs included in this project by the end of 2025. How to standardize the consistency of data and develop a unified and accurate evaluation method is an important topic. The difficulty is how to keep balance among scientificity neutrality and feasibility in the evaluation method. In order to evaluate the performance of vehicles in demonstration operation projects China has issued the "Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Test Specifications" which is an important guide for the future development of fuel cell electric vehicles in China. This paper compares the test methods for critical parameters in this specifications with those used in the United States and Japan. It explains China’s technical considerations in detail including fuel cell system rated power the volume power density of the fuel cell stack fuel cell system specific power fuel cell system sub-zero cold start and fuel cell electric vehicle range contributed by hydrogen. For the volume power density of the fuel cell stack as an example both the US Department of Energy and Japan’s New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization have proposed technical goals. However the lack of specific and detailed test methods has confused the industry. We propose a new test method using bipolar plate measurement based on scientificity feasibility and neutrality This is the first time to define the measuring method of the volume and specific power density of the fuel cell stack. For sub-zero cold start we put forward a feasible scheme for sub-zero cold start at the system level. For range contributed by hydrogen we propose a new test method that can distinguish the contributing of electric and hydrogen energy. Furthermore a hydrogen-to-electric conversion formula is proposed to calculate the equivalent hydrogen consumption which makes it possible to compare the energy consumption between plug-in and non-plug-in vehicles. At the same time this approach is significant in helping fuel cell-related enterprises to understand the formulation of China’s “Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Test Specifications”. It should also be helpful for guiding product design and predicting fuel cell electric vehicle policy direction in China.
Up-scalable Emerging Energy Conversion Technologies Enabled by 2D Materials: From Miniature Power Harvesters Towards Grid-connected Energy Systems
May 2021
Publication
Breakthrough discoveries in high-throughput formulation of abundant materials and advanced engineering approaches are both in utter need as prerequisites for developing novel large-scale energy conversion technologies required to address our planet's rising energy demands. Nowadays the rapid deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) associated with a distributed network of power-demanding smart devices concurrently urges for miniaturized systems powered by ambient energy harvesting. Graphene and other related two-dimensional materials (GRM) consist a perfect fit to drive this innovation owing to their extraordinary optoelectronic physical and chemical properties that emerge at the limit of two-dimensions. In this review after a critical analysis of GRM's emerging properties that are beneficial for power generation novel approaches are presented for developing ambient energy conversion devices covering a wide range of scales. Notable examples vary from GRM-enabled large-scale photovoltaic panels and fuel cells smart hydrovoltaics and blue energy conversion routes to miniaturized radio frequency piezoelectric triboelectric and thermoelectric energy harvesters. The insights from this review demonstrate that GRM-enabled energy harvesters apart from enabling the self-powered operation of individual IoT devices have also the potential to revolutionize the way that grid-electricity is provided in the cities of the future. This approach is materialized by two complementary paradigms: cross-coupled integration of GRM into firstly a network consisted of a vast number of miniaturized in-series-connected harvesters and secondly into up-scaled multi-energy hybrid harvesters both approaches having the potential for on-grid energy generation under all-ambient-conditions. At the end of the discussion perspectives on the trends limitations and commercialisation potential of these emerging up-scalable energy conversion technologies are provided. This review aims to highlight the importance of building a network of GRM-based cross-scaled energy conversion systems and their potential to become the guideline for the energy sustainable cities of the future.
Holistic Energy Efficiency and Environmental Friendliness Model for Short-Sea Vessels with Alternative Power Systems Considering Realistic Fuel Pathways and Workloads
Apr 2022
Publication
Energy requirements push the shipping industry towards more energy-efficient ships while environmental regulations influence the development of environmentally friendly ships by replacing fossil fuels with alternatives. Current mathematical models for ship energy efficiency which set the analysis boundaries at the level of the ship power system are not able to consider alternative fuels as a powering option. In this paper the energy efficiency and emissions index are formulated for ships with alternative power systems considering three different impacts on the environment (global warming acidification and eutrophication) and realistic fuel pathways and workloads. Besides diesel applications of alternative powering options such as electricity methanol liquefied natural gas hydrogen and ammonia are considered. By extending the analysis boundaries from the ship power system to the complete fuel cycle it is possible to compare different ships within the considered fleet or a whole shipping sector from the viewpoint of energy efficiency and environmental friendliness. The applicability of the model is illustrated on the Croatian ro-ro passenger fleet. A technical measure of implementation of alternative fuels in combination with an operational measure of speed reduction results in an even greater emissions reduction and an increase in energy efficiency. Analysis of the impact of voluntary speed reduction for ships with different power systems resulted in the identification of the optimal combination of alternative fuel and speed reduction by a specific percentage from the ship design speed.
Roadmap to Decarbonising European Shipping
Nov 2018
Publication
Shipping is one of the largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitting sectors of the global economy responsible for around 1 Gt of CO2eq every year. If shipping were a country it would be the 6th biggest GHG emitter. EU related shipping is responsible for about 1/5 of global ship GHG emissions emitting on average 200 Mt/year. This report assesses potential technology pathways for decarbonising EU related shipping through a shift to zero carbon technologies and the impact such a move could have on renewable electricity demand in Europe. It also identifies key policy and sustainability issues that should be considered when analysing and supporting different technology options to decarbonise the maritime sector. The basis of the study is outbound journeys under the geographical scope of the EU ship MRV Regulation.
We have not tried to quantify the emissions reductions that specific regulatory measures to be introduced at the IMO or EU level might contribute towards decarbonisation by 2050 because there are too many uncertainties. We have taken a more limited first approach and investigated how zero carbon propulsion pathways that currently seem feasible to decarbonise shipping would likely affect the future EU renewable energy supply needs.
It is now generally accepted that ship design efficiency requirements while potentially having an important impact on future emissions growth will fall well short of what is needed. Further operational efficiency measures such as capping operational speed will be important to immediately peak energy consumption and emissions but will be insufficient to decarbonise the sector or reduce its growing energy needs. In this context this study assumes that with all the likely immediate measures adopted energy demand for EU related shipping will still grow by 50% by 2050 over 2010 levels. This is within the range of the 20 -1 20% global BAU maritime energy demand growth estimate.
The decarbonisation of shipping will require changes in on -board energy storage and use and the necessary accompanying bunkering infrastructure. This study identifies the technology options for zero emission propulsion that based on current know-how are likely to be adopted. It is not exhaustive nor prescriptive because the ultimate pathways will likely depend on both the requirements of the shipping industry in terms of cost efficiency and safety and on the future renewable electricity sources that the shipping sect or will need to compete for.
Literature is nascent on the different techno-economic options likely to be available to decarbonise shipping and individual ships 4 but almost completely lacking on the possible impacts of maritime decarbonisation on the broader energy system(s). Understanding these impacts is nevertheless essential because it will influence financial and economic decision making by the EU and member states including those related to investment in future renewable energy supplies and new ship bunkering infrastructure. With this in mind the report aims to provide a preliminary first answer to the following question: Under different zero emission technology pathways how much additional renewable electricity would be needed to cater for the needs of EU related shipping in 2050?
Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website
We have not tried to quantify the emissions reductions that specific regulatory measures to be introduced at the IMO or EU level might contribute towards decarbonisation by 2050 because there are too many uncertainties. We have taken a more limited first approach and investigated how zero carbon propulsion pathways that currently seem feasible to decarbonise shipping would likely affect the future EU renewable energy supply needs.
It is now generally accepted that ship design efficiency requirements while potentially having an important impact on future emissions growth will fall well short of what is needed. Further operational efficiency measures such as capping operational speed will be important to immediately peak energy consumption and emissions but will be insufficient to decarbonise the sector or reduce its growing energy needs. In this context this study assumes that with all the likely immediate measures adopted energy demand for EU related shipping will still grow by 50% by 2050 over 2010 levels. This is within the range of the 20 -1 20% global BAU maritime energy demand growth estimate.
The decarbonisation of shipping will require changes in on -board energy storage and use and the necessary accompanying bunkering infrastructure. This study identifies the technology options for zero emission propulsion that based on current know-how are likely to be adopted. It is not exhaustive nor prescriptive because the ultimate pathways will likely depend on both the requirements of the shipping industry in terms of cost efficiency and safety and on the future renewable electricity sources that the shipping sect or will need to compete for.
Literature is nascent on the different techno-economic options likely to be available to decarbonise shipping and individual ships 4 but almost completely lacking on the possible impacts of maritime decarbonisation on the broader energy system(s). Understanding these impacts is nevertheless essential because it will influence financial and economic decision making by the EU and member states including those related to investment in future renewable energy supplies and new ship bunkering infrastructure. With this in mind the report aims to provide a preliminary first answer to the following question: Under different zero emission technology pathways how much additional renewable electricity would be needed to cater for the needs of EU related shipping in 2050?
Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website
Green Hydrogen in Europe – A Regional Assessment: Substituting Existing Production with Electrolysis Powered by Renewables
Nov 2020
Publication
The increasing ambition of climate targets creates a major role for hydrogen especially in achieving carbon-neutrality in sectors presently difficult to decarbonise. This work examines to what extent the currently carbon-intensive hydrogen production in Europe could be replaced by water electrolysis using electricity from renewable energy resources (RES) such as solar photovoltaic onshore/offshore wind and hydropower (green hydrogen). The study assesses the technical potential of RES at regional and national levels considering environmental constraints land use limitations and various techno-economic parameters. It estimates localised clean hydrogen production and examines the capacity to replace carbon-intensive hydrogen hubs with ones that use RES-based water electrolysis. Findings reveal that -at national level- the available RES electricity potential exceeds the total electricity demand and the part for hydrogen production from electrolysis in all analysed countries. At regional level from the 109 regions associated with hydrogen production (EU27 and UK) 88 regions (81%) show an excess of potential RES generation after covering the annual electricity demand across all sectors and hydrogen production. Notably 84 regions have over 50% excess RES electricity potential after covering the total electricity demand and that for water electrolysis. The study provides evidence on the option to decarbonize hydrogen production at regional level. It shows that such transformation is possible and compatible with the ongoing transition towards carbon–neutral power systems in the EU. Overall this work aims to serve as a tool for designing hydrogen strategies in harmony with renewable energy policies.
Controlled Hydrogen Fleet and Infrastructure Demonstration and Validation Project
Dec 2011
Publication
This report summarizes the work conducted under U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under contract DE-FC36-04GO14285 by Mercedes-Benz & Research Development North America (MBRDNA) Chrysler Daimler Mercedes Benz USA (MBUSA) BP DTE Energy and NextEnergy to validate fuel cell technologies for infrastructure transportation as well as assess technology and commercial readiness for the market. The Mercedes Team together with its partners tested the technology by operating and fuelling hydrogen fuel cell vehicles under real world conditions in varying climate terrain and driving conditions. Vehicle and infrastructure data was collected to monitor the progress toward the hydrogen vehicle and infrastructure performance targets of $2.00 to 3.00/gge hydrogen production cost and 2000-hour fuel cell durability. Finally to prepare the public for a hydrogen economy outreach activities were designed to promote awareness and acceptance of hydrogen technology. DTE BP and NextEnergy established hydrogen filling stations using multiple technologies for on-site hydrogen generation storage and dispensing. DTE established a hydrogen station in Southfield Michigan while NextEnergy and BP worked together to construct one hydrogen station in Detroit. BP constructed another fueling station in Burbank California and provided a full-time hydrogen trailer at San Francisco California and a hydrogen station located at Los Angeles International Airportmore.
Hydrogen Power Focus Shifts from Cars to Heavy Vehicles
Oct 2020
Publication
Hydrogen has been hailed as a promising energy carrier for decades. But compared to the thriving success of hybrid and plug-in electric cars the prospects for cars powered by hydrogen fuel cells have recently diminished mostly due to challenges in bringing down the costs of fuel cells and developing a broad network of fuelling stations.<br/>Beginning in March 2020 three major auto manufacturers—Daimler AG] Volkswagen and General Motors (GM)]—followed the April 2019 move by Honda to back out of the hydrogen-powered passenger car market. Instead these companies and others are looking to develop the technology as an emission-free solution to power heavy commercial and military vehicles with refuelling taking place at centralized locations.
Recent Development of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies: A Review
Aug 2021
Publication
Hydrogen has emerged as a new energy vector beyond its usual role as an industrial feedstock primarily for the production of ammonia methanol and petroleum refining. In addition to environmental sustainability issues energy-scarce developed countries such as Japan and Korea are also facing an energy security issue and hydrogen or hydrogen carriers such as ammonia and methylcyclohexane seem to be options to address these long-term energy availability issues. China has been eagerly developing renewable energy and hydrogen infrastructure to meet their sustainability goals and the growing energy demand. In this review we focus on hydrogen electrification through proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) which are widely believed to be commercially suitable for automotive applications particularly for vehicles requiring minimal hydrogen infrastructure support such as fleets of taxies buses and logistic vehicles. This review covers all the key components of PEMFCs thermal and water management and related characterization techniques. A special consideration of PEMFCs in automotive applications is the highlight of this work leading to the infrastructure development for hydrogen generation storage and transportation. Furthermore national strategies toward the use of hydrogen are reviewed thereby setting the rationale for the hydrogen economy.
Comparison of Two Energy Management Strategies Considering Power System Durability for PEMFC-LIB Hybrid Logistics Vehicle
Jun 2021
Publication
For commercial applications the durability and economy of the fuel cell hybrid system have become obstacles to be overcome which are not only affected by the performance of core materials and components but also closely related to the energy management strategy (EMS). This paper takes the 7.9 t fuel cell logistics vehicle as the research object and designed the EMS from two levels of qualitative and quantitative analysis which are the composite fuzzy control strategy optimized by genetic algorithm and Pontryagin’s minimum principle (PMP) optimized by objective function respectively. The cost function was constructed and used as the optimization objective to prolong the life of the power system as much as possible on the premise of ensuring the fuel economy. The results indicate that the optimized PMP showed a comprehensive optimal performance the hydrogen consumption was 3.481 kg/100 km and the cost was 13.042 $/h. The major contribution lies in that this paper presents a method to evaluate the effect of different strategies on vehicle performance including fuel economy and durability of the fuel cell and battery. The comparison between the two totally different strategies helps to find a better and effective solution to reduce the lifetime cost.
Green Hydrogen Powering Sustainable Festivals: Public Perceptions of Generators, Production and Ownership
Nov 2022
Publication
This paper is the first to explore public perceptions about a particular market niche for hydrogen; mobile generators. By utilising a combined research approach including in-situ surveys and online focus groups this paper explores what festival audience members and residents who live near festival sites think about the displacement of incumbent diesel generator technology with hydrogen alternatives. We investigate if hydrogen production methods are important in informing perceptions and subsequent support including the extent to which participants are influenced by the organisation or entity that produces the fuel and stands to profit from its sale. In addition to a primary focus on hydrogen energy we reflect upon how sustainability might be better conceptualised in a festival context. Our findings reveal broad support for hydrogen generators the use of green hydrogen as a fuel to generate electricity and community-led hydrogen production.
Development of a Turnkey Hydrogen Fuelling Station
Jul 2010
Publication
The transition to hydrogen as a fuel source presents several challenges. One of the major hurdles is the cost-effective production of hydrogen in small quantities (less than 1MMscf/month). In the early demonstration phase hydrogen can be provided by bulk distribution of liquid or compressed gas from central production plants; however the next phase to fostering the hydrogen economy will likely include onsite generation and extensive pipeline networks to help effect a pervasive infrastructure. Providing inexpensive hydrogen at a fleet operator’s garage or local fuelling station is a key enabling technology for direct hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs). The objective of this project was to develop a comprehensive turnkey stand-alone commercial hydrogen fuelling station for FCVs with state-of-the-art technology that is cost-competitive with current hydrocarbon fuels. Such a station would promote the advent of the hydrogen fuel economy for buses fleet vehicles and ultimately personal vehicles. Air Products partnering with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) The Pennsylvania State University Harvest Energy Technology and QuestAir developed a turnkey hydrogen fuelling station on the Penn State campus. Air Products aimed at designing a station that would have 65% overall station efficiency 82% PSA (pressure swing adsorption) efficiency and the capability of producing hydrogen at $3.00/kg (gge) H2 at mass production rates. Air Products designed a fuelling station at Penn State from the ground up. This project was implemented in three phases. The first phase evaluated the various technologies available in hydrogen generation compression storage and gas dispensing. In the second phase Air Products designed the components chosen from the technologies examined. Finally phase three entailed a several-month period of data collection full-scale operation maintenance of the station and optimization of system reliability and performance. Based on field data analysis it was determined by a proprietary hydrogen-analysis model that hydrogen produced from the station at a rate of 1500 kg/day and when produced at 1000 stations per year would be able to deliver hydrogen at a price of $3.03/kg (gge) H2. The station’s efficiency was measured to be 65.1% and the PSA was tested and ran at an efficiency of 82.1% thus meeting the project targets. From the study it was determined that more research was needed in the area of hydrogen fuelling. The overall cost of the hydrogen energy station when combined with the required plot size for scaled-up hydrogen demands demonstrated that a station using steam methane reforming technology as a means to produce on–site hydrogen would have limited utility in the marketplace. Alternative hydrogen supplies such as liquid or pipeline delivery to a refuelling station need to be included in the exploration of alternative energy site layouts. These avenues need to be explored before a definitive refuelling station configuration and commercialization pathway can be determined.
Towards Ecological Alternatives in Bearing Lubrication
Jun 2021
Publication
Hydrogen is the cleanest fuel available because its combustion product is water. The internal combustion engine can in principle and without significant modifications run on hydrogen to produce mechanical energy. Regarding the technological solution leading to compact engines a question to ask is the following: Can combustion engine systems be lubricated with hydrogen? In general since many applications such as in turbomachines is it possible to use the surrounding gas as a lubricant? In this paper journal bearings global parameters are calculated and compared for steady state and dynamic conditions for different gas constituents such as air pentafluoropropane helium and hydrogen. Such a bearing may be promising as an ecological alternative to liquid lubrication.
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