Applications & Pathways
Hydrogen-based Integrated Energy and Mobility System for a Real-life Office Environment
Mar 2020
Publication
The current focus on the massive CO2 reduction highlights the need for the rapid development of technology for the production storage transportation and distribution of renewable energy. In addition to electricity we need other forms of energy carriers that are more suitable for energy storage and transportation. Hydrogen is one of the main candidates for this purpose since it can be produced from solar or wind energy and then stored; once needed it can be converted back to electricity using fuel cells. Another important aspect of future energy systems is sector coupling where different sectors e.g. mobility and energy work together to provide better services. In such an integrated system electric vehicles – both battery and hydrogen-based fuel cell – can provide when parked electricity services such as backup power and balancing; when driving they produce no emissions. In this paper we present the concept design and energy management of such an integrated energy and mobility system in a real-life environment at the Shell Technology Centre in Amsterdam. Our results show that storage using hydrogen and salt caverns is much cheaper than using large battery storage systems. We also show that the integration of electric vehicles into the electricity network is technically and economically feasible and that they can provide a flexible energy buffer. Ultimately the results of this study show that using both electricity and hydrogen as energy carriers can create a more flexible reliable and cheaper energy system at an office building.
A Preliminary Energy Analysis of a Commercial CHP Fueled with H2NG Blends Chemically Supercharged by Renewable Hydrogen and Oxygen
Dec 2016
Publication
Currently Power-to-Gas technologies are considered viable solutions to face the onset problems associated with renewable capacity firming. Indeed carbon-free hydrogen production converting renewable electricity excess and its injection into natural gas pipelines is considered a short- to medium-term solution. In this way the so-called H2NG blends can be fired within internal combustion engines and micro gas turbines operating in CHP mode offering better environmental-energy performances in machines. As regards the distributed energy generation scenario the local H2 production by means of electrolysis for methane enrichment will be more cost-effective if the oxygen is fruitfully used instead of venting it out like a by-product as usually occurs. This study focuses on the usefulness of using that oxygen to enrich the air-fuel mixture of an internal combustion engine for micro-CHP applications once it has been fuelled with H2NG blends. Thus the main aim of this paper is to provide a set of values for benchmarking in which H2NG blends ranging in 0%-15% vol. burn within an ICE in partial oxy-fuel conditions. In particular a preliminary energy analysis was carried out based on experimental data reporting the engine operating parameters gains and losses in both electrical and heat recovery efficiency. The oxygen content in the air varies up to 22% vol. A Volkswagen Blue Tender CHP commercial version (19.8 kWel. of rated electrical power output) was considered as the reference machine and its energy characterization was reported when it operated under those unconventional conditions.
Hydrogen Mobility Europe (H2ME): Vehicle and Hydrogen Refuelling Station Deployment Results
May 2018
Publication
Hydrogen Mobility Europe (H2ME 2015–2022) is the largest European Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (EU FCH JU)-funded hydrogen light vehicle and infrastructure demonstration. Up until April 2017 the 40 Daimler passenger car fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and 62 Symbio Fuel Cell-Range Extended Electric Vans (FC-REEV)-vans deployed by the project drove 625300 km and consumed a total of 7900 kg of hydrogen with no safety incidents. During its first year of operation (to April 2017) the NEL Hydrogen Fueling HRS (hydrogen refuelling station) in Kolding Denmark dispensed 900 kg of hydrogen and demonstrated excellent reliability (98.2% availability) with no safety incidents. The average hydrogen refuelling time for passenger cars is comparable to that for conventional vehicles (2–3 min).
The Role of Natural Gas and its Infrastructure in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Improving Regional Air Quality, and Renewable Resource Integration
Nov 2017
Publication
The pursuit of future energy systems that can meet electricity demands while supporting the attainment of societal environment goals including mitigating climate change and reducing pollution in the air has led to questions regarding the viability of continued use of natural gas. Natural gas use particularly for electricity generation has increased in recent years due to enhanced resource availability from non-traditional reserves and pressure to reduce greenhouse gasses (GHG) from higher-emitting sources including coal generation. While lower than coal emissions current natural gas power generation strategies primarily utilize combustion with higher emissions of GHG and criteria pollutants than other low-carbon generation options including renewable resources. Furthermore emissions from life cycle stages of natural gas production and distribution can have additional detrimental GHG and air quality (AQ) impacts. On the other hand natural gas power generation can play an important role in supporting renewable resource integration by (1) providing essential load balancing services and (2) supporting the use of gaseous renewable fuels through the existing infrastructure of the natural gas system. Additionally advanced technologies and strategies including fuel cells and combined cooling heating and power (CCHP) systems can facilitate natural gas generation with low emissions and high efficiencies. Thus the role of natural gas generation in the context of GHG mitigation and AQ improvement is complex and multi-faceted requiring consideration of more than simple quantification of total or net emissions. If appropriately constructed and managed natural gas generation could support and advance sustainable and renewable energy. In this paper a review of the literature regarding emissions from natural gas with a focus on power generation is conducted and discussed in the context of GHG and AQ impacts. In addition a pathway forward is proposed for natural gas generation and infrastructure to maximize environmental benefits and support renewable resources in the attainment of emission reductions.
Recent Advances in Carbon Dioxide Conversion: A Circular Bioeconomy Perspective
Jun 2021
Publication
Managing the concentration of atmospheric CO2 requires a multifaceted engineering strategy which remains a highly challenging task. Reducing atmospheric CO2 (CO2R) by converting it to value-added chemicals in a carbon neutral footprint manner must be the ultimate goal. The latest progress in CO2R through either abiotic (artificial catalysts) or biotic (natural enzymes) processes is reviewed herein. Abiotic CO2R can be conducted in the aqueous phase that usually leads to the formation of a mixture of CO formic acid and hydrogen. By contrast a wide spectrum of hydrocarbon species is often observed by abiotic CO2R in the gaseous phase. On the other hand biotic CO2R is often conducted in the aqueous phase and a wide spectrum of value-added chemicals are obtained. Key to the success of the abiotic process is understanding the surface chemistry of catalysts which significantly governs the reactivity and selectivity of CO2R. However in biotic CO2R operation conditions and reactor design are crucial to reaching a neutral carbon footprint. Future research needs to look toward neutral or even negative carbon footprint CO2R processes. Having a deep insight into the scientific and technological aspect of both abiotic and biotic CO2R would advance in designing efficient catalysts and microalgae farming systems. Integrating the abiotic and biotic CO2R such as microbial fuel cells further diversifies the spectrum of CO2R.
The Maritime Sector and Its Problematic Decarbonization: A Systematic Review of the Contribution of Alternative Fuels
May 2022
Publication
The present study seeks to select the most important articles and reviews from the Web of Science database that approached alternative fuels towards the decarbonization of the maritime sector. Through a systematic review methodology a combination of keywords and manual refining found a contribution of 103 works worldwide the European continent accounting for 57% of all publications. Twenty-two types of fuels were cited by the authors liquefied natural gas (LNG) hydrogen and biodiesel contributing to 49% of the mentions. Greenhouse gases sulfur oxide nitrogen oxide and particulate matter reductions are some of the main advantages of cleaner sources if used by the vessels. Nevertheless there is a lack of practical research on new standards engine performance cost and regulations from the academy to direct more stakeholders towards low carbon intensity in the shipping sector.
Emerging, Hydrogen-driven Electrochemical Water Purification
Jan 2022
Publication
Energy-efficient technologies for the remediation of water and generation of drinking water is a key towards sustainable technologies. Electrochemical desalination technologies are promising alternatives towards established methods such as reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration. In the last few years hydrogen-driven electrochemical water purification has emerged. This review article explores the concept of desalination fuel cells and capacitive-Faradaic fuel cells for ion separation.
H2 Green Hydrogen Discussion Paper: Victorian Hydrogen Investment Program
Nov 2019
Publication
This discussion paper is for stakeholders who would like to shape the development of Victoria’s emerging green hydrogen sector identifying competitive advantages and priority focus areas for industry and the Victorian Government.<br/>The Victorian Government is using this paper to focus on the economic growth and sector development opportunities emerging for a Victorian hydrogen industry powered by renewable energy also known as ‘green’ hydrogen. In addition this paper seeks input from all stakeholders on how where and when the Victorian Government can act to establish a thriving green hydrogen economy.<br/>Although green hydrogen is the only type of hydrogen production within the scope of this discussion paper the development of the VHIP aligns with the policies projects and initiatives which support these other forms of hydrogen production. The VHIP is considering the broad policy landscape and actively coordinating with related hydrogen programs policies and strategies under development including the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) Energy Council’s National Hydrogen Strategy to ensure a complementary approach. In Victoria there are several programs and strategies in development and underway that have linkages with hydrogen and the VHIP.
Life Cycle Assessment of Fuel Cell Vehicles Considering the Detailed Vehicle Components: Comparison and Scenario Analysis in China Based on Different Hydrogen Production Schemes
Aug 2019
Publication
Numerous studies concerning the life cycle assessment of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have been conducted. However little attention has been paid to the life cycle assessment of an FCV from the perspective of the detailed vehicle components. This work conducts the life cycle assessment of Toyota Mirai with all major components considered in a Chinese context. Both the vehicle cycle and the fuel cycle are included. Both comprehensive resources and energy consumption and comprehensive environmental emissions of the life cycles are investigated. Potential environmental impacts are further explored based on CML 2001 method. Then different hydrogen production schemes are compared to obtain the most favorable solution. To explore the potential of the electrolysis the scenario analysis of the power structure is conducted. The results show that the most mineral resources are consumed in the raw material acquisition stage the most fossil energy is consumed in the use stage and global warming potential (GWP) value is fairly high in all life cycle stages of Toyota Mirai using electrolyzed hydrogen. For hydrogen production schemes the scenario analysis indicates that simply by optimizing the power structure the environmental impact of the electrolysis remains higher than other schemes. When using the electricity from hydropower or wind power the best choice will be the electrolysis.
A Comprehensive Comparison of State-of-the-art Manufacturing Methods for Fuel Cell Bipolar Plates Including Anticipated Future Industry Trends
Nov 2020
Publication
This article explains and evaluates contemporary methods for manufacturing bipolar plates (BPPs) for lowtemperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (LT-PEMFC) and highlights the potential of new improved approaches. BPPs are an essential component of fuel cells responsible for distributing reaction gases to facilitate efficient conversion of gaseous electrochemical energy to electricity. BPPs must balance technical properties such as electrical and thermal conductivities structural strength and corrosion resistance. Graphitic and metallic materials can meet the required specifications with each material offering distinct advantages and disadvantages. Each materials’ performance is complimented by a comparison of its manufacturability including: the material costs production rates and required capital investment. These results are contextualised with respect to the target applications to identify the challenges and advantages of manufacturing methods of choice for BPPs. This analysis shows that the optimal choice of BPP manufacturing method depends entirely on the needs of the target application in particular the relative importance of manufacturing rate cost and the expected operational life of the bipolar plate to the fuel cell designer.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles: State of the Art and Perspectives
Nov 2020
Publication
Driven by a small number of niche markets and several decades of application research fuel cell systems (FCS) are gradually reaching maturity to the point where many players are questioning the interest and intensity of its deployment in the transport sector in general. This article aims to shed light on this debate from the road transport perspective. It focuses on the description of the fuel cell vehicle (FCV) in order to understand its assets limitations and current paths of progress. These vehicles are basically hybrid systems combining a fuel cell and a lithium-ion battery and different architectures are emerging among manufacturers who adopt very different levels of hybridization. The main opportunity of Fuel Cell Vehicles is clearly their design versatility based on the decoupling of the choice of the number of Fuel Cell modules and hydrogen tanks. This enables manufacturers to meet various specifications using standard products. Upcoming developments will be in line with the crucial advantage of Fuel Cell Vehicles: intensive use in terms of driving range and load capacity. Over the next few decades long-distance heavy-duty vehicles and fleets of taxis or delivery vehicles will develop based on range extender or mild hybrid architectures and enable the hydrogen sector to mature the technology from niche markets to a large-scale market.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Aircraft for the Nordic Market
Mar 2024
Publication
A model for a fuel cell propelled 50 PAX hydrogen aircraft is developed. In terms of year 2045 Nordic air travel demand this aircraft is expected to cover 97% of travel distances and 58% of daily passenger volume. Using an ATR 42 as a baseline cryogenic tanks and fuel cell stacks are sized and propulsion system masses updated. Fuselage and wing resizing are required which increases mass and wetted area. Sizing methods for the multi-stack fuel cell and the cryogenic tanks are implemented. The dynamic aircraft model is updated with models for hydrogen consumption and tank pressure control. For the Multi-layer insulation (MLI) tank a trade study is performed. A ventilation pressure of 1.76 bar and 15 MLI layers are found to be optimal for the design mission. A return-without-refuel mission is explored where for a 10-hour ground hold 38.4% of the design range is retained out of the theoretically achievable 50%.
Bridging the Maritime-Hydrogen Cost-Gap: Real Options Analysis of Policy Alternatives
May 2022
Publication
Alternative and especially renewable marine fuels are needed to reduce the environmental and climate impacts of the shipping sector. This paper investigates the business case for hydrogen as an alternative fuel in a new-built vessel utilizing fuel cells and liquefied hydrogen. A real option approach is used to model the optimal time and costs for investment as well as the value of deferring an investment as a result of uncertainty. This model is then used to assess the impact of a carbon tax on a ship owner’s investment decision. A low carbon tax results in ship owners deferring investments which then slows the uptake of the technology. We recommend that policymakers set a high carbon tax at an early stage in order to help hydrogen compete with fossil fuels. A clear and timely policy design promotes further investments and accelerates the uptake of new technologies that can fulfill decarbonization targets.
Varying Load Distribution Impacts on the Operation of a Hydrogen Generator Plant
Oct 2021
Publication
This study advances several methods to evaluate the operation of a hydrogen generator plant. The model developed helps customize plants that contain multiple generators of varying powers using a decision module which determines the most efficient plant load distribution. Evaluation indices to assess individual devices within the plant are proposed and system flexibility maximizes the amount of renewable energy stored. Three case studies examined the variable load distribution of an electrolysis system connected to a 40 MW wind farm for energy storage purposes and incorporated a “night-valley” operational strategy. These methods facilitate the selection of the proper plant configuration and provide estimates for individual device effectiveness within the system.
Modeling of Fixed Bed Reactor for Coal Tar Hydrogenation via the Kinetic Lumping Approach
Nov 2018
Publication
Hydrogenation technology is an indispensable chemical upgrading process for converting the heavy feedstock into favorable lighter products. In this work a new kinetic model containing four hydrocarbon lumps (feedstock diesel gasoline cracking gas) was developed to describe the coal tar hydrogenation process the Levenberg–Marquardt’s optimization algorithm was used to determine the kinetic parameters by minimizing the sum of square errors between experimental and calculated data the predictions from model validation showed a good agreement with experimental values. Subsequently an adiabatic reactor model based on proposed lumped kinetic model was constructed to further investigate the performance of hydrogenation fixed-bed units the mass balance and energy balance within the phases in the reactor were taken into accounts in the form of ordinary differential equation. An application of the reactor model was performed for simulating the actual bench-scale plant of coal tar hydrogenation the simulated results on the products yields and temperatures distribution along with the reactor are shown to be good consistent with the experimental data.
World Energy Issues Monitor 2020: Decoding New Signals of Change
Oct 2020
Publication
ISSUES MONITOR 2020: DECODING NEW SIGNALS OF CHANGE
The annual World Energy Issues Monitor provides unique insight into what energy policymakers CEOs and leading experts identify as Critical Uncertainties and Action Priorities. New this year the Issues Monitor also provides readers with the views of the individual customer detailing their perceptions of their role in the overall energy system. The Issues Monitor report includes a global issues map 58 country maps and six regional maps as well as perspectives from Future Energy Leaders (FEL) and energy innovators.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
The 2020 global map incorporates all survey responses representing the views of over 3000 energy leaders from 104 countries. In this era of transition defined by decentralisation digitalisation and decarbonisation energy leaders must pay attention to many different signals of change and distinguish key issues from the noise. The Issues Monitor identifies shifting patterns of connected issues shaping energy transitions.
A NEW PULSE
The focus for the 2010s was about trying to automate and upgrade the energy system and set targets to move the energy transition forward. Digitalisation accelerated the transition of all sectors towards a more customer-centric environment. New policies and regulations were introduced to facilitate this transition and empower consumers. As a result the 2020s may very well be about realising those targets through a transition from activism to action.
TREND TRACKING: CCS
In comparing response from the Oil & Gas sector in 2015 with 2019 we found that almost half of respondents identified Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) as a high impact issue in 2019 up from about a third in 2015. CCS is increasingly being viewed as an essential option for continued hydrocarbon use although governmental support is needed to enable scalability and cost effectiveness.
A DIFFERENCE IN OPINION: NUCLEAR
Opinions remain polarised but in many European countries nuclear power is increasingly recognised as a carbon-free energy source and potentially an integral part of the future energy mix. In December 2019 the European Commission set a target of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. There is qualified support among energy leaders to include nuclear energy to help create a carbon neutral continent and enable a just energy transition.
The annual World Energy Issues Monitor provides unique insight into what energy policymakers CEOs and leading experts identify as Critical Uncertainties and Action Priorities. New this year the Issues Monitor also provides readers with the views of the individual customer detailing their perceptions of their role in the overall energy system. The Issues Monitor report includes a global issues map 58 country maps and six regional maps as well as perspectives from Future Energy Leaders (FEL) and energy innovators.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
The 2020 global map incorporates all survey responses representing the views of over 3000 energy leaders from 104 countries. In this era of transition defined by decentralisation digitalisation and decarbonisation energy leaders must pay attention to many different signals of change and distinguish key issues from the noise. The Issues Monitor identifies shifting patterns of connected issues shaping energy transitions.
A NEW PULSE
The focus for the 2010s was about trying to automate and upgrade the energy system and set targets to move the energy transition forward. Digitalisation accelerated the transition of all sectors towards a more customer-centric environment. New policies and regulations were introduced to facilitate this transition and empower consumers. As a result the 2020s may very well be about realising those targets through a transition from activism to action.
TREND TRACKING: CCS
In comparing response from the Oil & Gas sector in 2015 with 2019 we found that almost half of respondents identified Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) as a high impact issue in 2019 up from about a third in 2015. CCS is increasingly being viewed as an essential option for continued hydrocarbon use although governmental support is needed to enable scalability and cost effectiveness.
A DIFFERENCE IN OPINION: NUCLEAR
Opinions remain polarised but in many European countries nuclear power is increasingly recognised as a carbon-free energy source and potentially an integral part of the future energy mix. In December 2019 the European Commission set a target of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. There is qualified support among energy leaders to include nuclear energy to help create a carbon neutral continent and enable a just energy transition.
Effect of Hydrogen Addition on the Energetic and Ecologic Parameters of an SI Engine Fueled by Biogas
Jan 2021
Publication
The global policy solution seeks to reduce the usage of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and biogas (BG) represents a solutions to these problems. The use of biogas could help cope with increased amounts of waste and reduce usage of fossil fuels. Biogas could be used in compressed natural gas (CNG) engines but the engine electronic control unit (ECU) needs to be modified. In this research a spark ignition (SI) engine was tested for mixtures of biogas and hydrogen (volumetric hydrogen concentration of 0 14 24 33 and 43%). In all experiments two cases of spark timing (ST) were used: the first for an optimal mixture and the second for CNG. The results show that hydrogen increases combustion quality and reduces incomplete combustion products. Because of BG’s lower burning speed the advanced ST increased brake thermal efficiency (BTE) by 4.3% when the engine was running on biogas. Adding 14 vol% of hydrogen (H2 ) increases the burning speed of the mixture and enhances BTE by 2.6% at spark timing optimal for CNG (CNG ST) and 0.6% at the optimal mixture ST (mixture ST). Analyses of the rate of heat release (ROHR) temperature and pressure increase in the cylinder were carried out using utility BURN in AVL BOOST software.
Process Integration of Green Hydrogen: Decarbonization of Chemical Industries
Sep 2020
Publication
Integrated water electrolysis is a core principle of new process configurations for decarbonized heavy industries. Water electrolysis generates H2 and O2 and involves an exchange of thermal energy. In this manuscript we investigate specific traditional heavy industrial processes that have previously been performed in nitrogen-rich air environments. We show that the individual process streams may be holistically integrated to establish new decarbonized industrial processes. In new process configurations CO2 capture is facilitated by avoiding inert gases in reactant streams. The primary energy required to drive electrolysis may be obtained from emerging renewable power sources (wind solar etc.) which have enjoyed substantial industrial development and cost reductions over the last decade. The new industrial designs uniquely harmonize the intermittency of renewable energy allowing chemical energy storage. We show that fully integrated electrolysis promotes the viability of decarbonized industrial processes. Specifically new process designs uniquely exploit intermittent renewable energy for CO2 conversion enabling thermal integration H2 and O2 utilization and sub-process harmonization for economic feasibility. The new designs are increasingly viable for decarbonizing ferric iron reduction municipal waste incineration biomass gasification fermentation pulp production biogas upgrading and calcination and are an essential step forward in reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Towards a CO2-neutral Steel Industry: Justice Aspects of CO2 Capture and Storage, Biomass- and Green Hydrogen-based Emission Reductions
Apr 2022
Publication
A rapid transition towards a CO2-neutral steel industry is required to limit climate change. Such a transition raises questions of justice as it entails positive and negative impacts unevenly distributed across societal stakeholders. To enable stakeholders to address such concerns this paper assesses the justice implications of three options that reduce emissions: CO2 capture and storage (CCS) on steel (up to 70%) bio-based steelmaking (up to 50%) and green hydrogen-based steel production (up to 100%). We select justice indicators from the energy climate labour and environmental justice literature and assess these indicators qualitatively for each of the technological routes based on literature and desk research. We find context-dependent differences in justness between the different technological routes. The impact on stakeholders varies across regions. There are justice concerns for local communities because of economic dependence on and environmental impact of the industry. Communities elsewhere are impacted through the siting of infrastructure and feedstock production. CCS and bio-based steelmaking routes can help retain industry and associated economic benefits on location while hydrogen-based steelmaking may deal better with environmental concerns. We conclude that besides techno-economic and environmental information transparency on sector-specific justice implications of transforming steel industries is essential for decision-making on technological routes
Hydrogen Roadmap Europe: A Sustainable Pathway for the European Energy Transition
Feb 2019
Publication
Hydrogen is an essential element in the energy transition and can account for 24% of final energy demand and 5.4m jobs by 2050 says the new study by the FCH JU “Hydrogen Roadmap Europe: A sustainable pathway for the European Energy Transition“. Developed with input from 17 leading European industrial actors the study lays out a pathway for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells until 2050 and quantifies the associated socio-economic impacts.<br/>The report makes the case that hydrogen is required to address the challenges ahead. At scale decarbonisation of key segments such as the gas grid transport (particularly as relates to heavy duty vehicles) industrial processes that use high-grade heat and hydrogen as chemical feedstock require the use of hydrogen in large quantities.<br/>In addition the electrification of the economy and the large scale integration of intermittent renewable energy sources require large scale energy storage enabling seasonal storage and the efficient transport of clean energy across regions at low cost. Hydrogen is the only at scale technology capable of addressing all of these challenges.<br/>Importantly there will be important socio-economic and environmental benefits associated with this deployment such as an EUR 820B per year market and a total of 560Mt CO2 abated. The report lays out a roadmap for the ramp-up of market deployment across applications setting specific milestones between now and 2050. It also calls for a coordinated approach from policy makers industry and investors in order to achieve the 2-degree scenario.
Multi-state Techno-economic Model for Optimal Dispatch of Grid Connected Hydrogen Electrolysis Systems Operating Under Dynamic Conditions
Oct 2020
Publication
The production of hydrogen through water electrolysis is a promising pathway to decarbonize the energy sector. This paper presents a techno-economic model of electrolysis plants based on multiple states of operation: production hot standby and idle. The model enables the calculation of the optimal hourly dispatch of electrolyzers to produce hydrogen for different end uses. This model has been tested with real data from an existing installation and compared with a simpler electrolyzer model that is based on two states. The results indicate that an operational strategy that considers the multi-state model leads to a decrease in final hydrogen production costs. These reduced costs will benefit businesses especially while electrolysis plants grow in size to accommodate further increases in demand.
Building an Optimal Hydrogen Transportation System for Mobility, Focus on Minimizing the Cost of Transportation via Truck
Jan 2018
Publication
The approach developed aims to identify the methodology that will be used to deliver the minimum cost for hydrogen infrastructure deployment using a mono-objective linear optimisation. It focuses on minimizing both capital and operation costs of the hydrogen transportation based on transportation via truck which represents the main focus of this paper and a cost-minimal pipeline system in the case of France and Germany. The paper explains the mathematical model describing the link between the hydrogen production via electrolysers and the distribution for mobility needs. The main parameters and the assumed scenario framework are explained. Subsequently the transportation of hydrogen via truck using different states of aggregation is analysed as well as the transformation and storage of hydrogen. This is used finally to build a linear programming aiming to minimize the sum of costs of hydrogen transportation between the different nodes and transformation/storage within the nodes.
CFD Simulations of Filling and Emptying of Hydrogen Tanks
Jun 2016
Publication
During the filling of hydrogen tanks high temperatures can be generated inside the vessel because of the gas compression while during the emptying low temperatures can be reached because of the gas expansion. The design temperature range goes from −40 °C to 85 °C. Temperatures outside that range could affect the mechanical properties of the tank materials. CFD analyses of the filling and emptying processes have been performed in the HyTransfer project. To assess the accuracy of the CFD model the simulation results have been compared with new experimental data for different filling and emptying strategies. The comparison between experiments and simulations is shown for the temperatures of the gas inside the tank for the temperatures at the interface between the liner and the composite material and for the temperatures on the external surface of the vessel.
Spatially Resolved Optimization for Studying the Role of Hydrogen for Heat Decarbonization Pathways
Apr 2018
Publication
This paper studies the economic feasibility of installing hydrogen networks for decarbonizing heat in urban areas. The study uses the Heat Infrastructure and Technology (HIT) spatially resolved optimization model to trade-off energy supply infrastructure and end-use technology costs for the most important heat-related energy vectors: gas heat electricity and hydrogen. Two model formulations are applied to a UK urban area: one with an independent hydrogen network and one that allows for retrofitting the gas network into hydrogen. Results show that for average hydrogen price projections cost-effective pathways for heat decarbonization toward 2050 include heat networks supplied by a combination of district-level heat pumps and gas boilers in the domestic and commercial sectors and hydrogen boilers in the domestic sector. For a low hydrogen price scenario when retrofitting the gas network into hydrogen a cost-effective pathway is replacing gas by hydrogen boilers in the commercial sector and a mixture of hydrogen boilers and heat networks supplied by district-level heat pumps gas and hydrogen boilers for the domestic sector. Compared to the first modelled year CO2 emission reductions of 88% are achieved by 2050. These results build on previous research on the role of hydrogen in cost-effective heat decarbonization pathways.
The Influence of the Hydrogen Supply Modes on a Hydrogen Refueling Station
Apr 2020
Publication
Setting up and operating a hydrogen refueling station is a critical part of current drive for fuel cell vehicles. In setting up a hydrogen refueling station (HRS) the investor concerns of the capacity of HRS the quality of hydrogen the capital requirement of the station and the modes of hydrogen supply; interestingly the supply modes of hydrogen further influences the safety of the station the cost of hydrogen the energy consumption of supply and the area of hydrogen supply section in a station. Hydrogen can be supplied to a HRS by the procurement of the merchant hydrogen from a central source with the central hydrogen supply mode (CHSM) or by an onsite production of hydrogen in the distributed hydrogen supply mode (DHSM). In this presentation the above factors are evaluated with respect to these two supply modes of hydrogen. It is concluded that the lower hydrogen cost and the smaller site area as well as the safer aspect of the public concern of safety can be realized with the choice of the distributed hydrogen supply mode by an onsite hydrogen production from methanol.
Direct Ammonia Low-temperature Symmetrical Solid Oxide Fuel Cells with Composite Semiconductor Electrolyte
Jan 2022
Publication
In this work a low-temperature symmetrical solid oxide fuel cell with Ni-NCAL|SDC/NCAL|Ni-NCAL (70 SDC:30 NCAL) configuration was successfully constructed by a simple dry press method. At 500 and 550 ◦C the peak power densities of the cell in ammonia were 501 and 755 mW cm− 2 and in hydrogen were 670 and 895 mW cm− 2 respectively. EIS data showed that the Rp values of the cell in ammonia and hydrogen at 550 ◦C were 0.250 and 0.246 Ω cm− 2 respectively indicating the excellent catalytic activity of the Ni-NCAL electrode toward ammonia decomposition and hydrogen oxidation. The different cell output can be ascribed to additional ammonia decomposition steps compared to hydrogen. The noticeable reaction product on the surface of the Ni foam was detrimental to ammonia decomposition. In summary a symmetrical cell with SDC/NCAL semi-conductor electrolyte and Ni-NCAL electrodes exhibited higher electrochemical performance at low temperature than the results reported to date. Therefore higher electrochemical performance can be expected from this cell configuration with more efficient ammonia decomposition catalysts.
Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen-fuelled Passenger Cars
Feb 2021
Publication
In order to achieve gradual but timely decarbonisation of the transport sector it is essential to evaluate which types of vehicles provide a suitable environmental performance while allowing the use of hydrogen as a fuel. This work compares the environmental life-cycle performance of three different passenger cars fuelled by hydrogen: a fuel cell electric vehicle an internal combustion engine car and a hybrid electric vehicle. Besides two vehicles that use hydrogen in a mixture with natural gas or gasoline were considered. In all cases hydrogen produced by wind power electrolysis was assumed. The resultant life-cycle profiles were benchmarked against those of a compressed natural gas car and a hybrid electric vehicle fed with natural gas. Vehicle infrastructure was identified as the main source of environmental burdens. Nevertheless the three pure hydrogen vehicles were all found to be excellent decarbonisation solutions whereas vehicles that use hydrogen mixed with natural gas or gasoline represent good opportunities to encourage the use of hydrogen in the short term while reducing emissions compared to ordinary vehicles.
Efficient Hydrogen Production Through the Chemical Looping Redox Cycle of YSZ Supported Iron Oxides
Jul 2020
Publication
The chemical looping process where an oxygen carrier is reduced and oxidized in a cyclic manner offers a promising option for hydrogen production through splitting water because of the much higher water splitting efficiency than solar electrocatalytic and photocatalytic process. A typical oxygen carrier has to comprise a significant amount of inert support to maintain stability in multiple redox cycles thereby resulting in a trade-off between the reaction reactivity and stability. Herein we proposed the use of ion-conductive yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) support Fe2O3 to prepare oxygen carriers materials. The obtained Fe2O3/YSZ composites showed high reactivity and stability. Particularly Fe2O3/YSZ-20 (oxygen storage capacity 24.13%) exhibited high hydrogen yield of ∼10.30 mmol·g-1 and hydrogen production rate of ∼0.66 mmol·g-1·min-1 which was twice as high as that of Fe2O3/Al2O3. Further the transient pulse test indicated that active oxygen diffusion was the rate-limiting step during the redox process. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement revealed that the YSZ support addition facilitated oxygen diffusion of materials which contributed to the improved hydrogen production performance. The support effect obtained in this work provides a potentially efficient route for the modification of oxygen carrier materials.
The National Hydrogen Strategy - The Federal Government Germany
Jun 2020
Publication
The energy transition – which represents the efforts undertaken and results achieved on renewable energy expansion and energy efficiency – is our basis for a clean secure and affordable energy supply which is essential for all our lives. By adopting the 2030 Climate Action Plan the Federal Government has paved the way for meeting its climate targets for 2030. Its long-term goal is to achieve carbon neutrality in line with the targets agreed under the Paris Agreement which seeks to keep global warming well below 2 degrees and if possible below 1.5 degrees. In addition Germany has committed itself together with the other European Member States to achieving greenhouse gas (GHG) neutrality by 2050. Apart from phasing out coal-fired power for which Germany has already taken the relevant decisions this means preventing emissions which are particularly hard to reduce such as process-related GHG emissions from the industrial sector.<br/>In order for the energy transition to be successful security of supply affordability and environmental compatibility need to be combined with innovative and smart climate action. This means that the fossil fuels we are currently using need to be replaced by alternative options. This applies in particular to gaseous and liquid energy sources which will continue to be an integral part of Germany’s energy supply. Against this backdrop hydrogen will play a key role in enhancing and completing the energy transition.
Decarbonising City Bus Networks in Ireland with Renewable Hydrogen
Dec 2020
Publication
This paper presents techno-economic modelling results of a nationwide hydrogen fuel supply chain (HFSC) that includes renewable hydrogen production transportation and dispensing systems for fuel cell electric buses (FCEBs) in Ireland. Hydrogen is generated by electrolysers located at each existing Irish wind farm using curtailed or available wind electricity. Additional electricity is supplied by on-site photovoltaic (PV) arrays and stored using lithium-ion batteries. At each wind farm sizing of the electrolyser PV array and battery is optimised system design to obtain the minimum levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Results show the average electrolyser capacity factor is 64% after the integration of wind farm-based electrolysers with PV arrays and batteries. A location-allocation algorithm in a geographic information system (GIS) environment optimises the distributed hydrogen supply chain from each wind farm to a hypothetical hydrogen refuelling station in the nearest city. Results show that hydrogen produced transported and dispensed using this system can meet the entire current bus fuel demand for all the studied cities at a potential LCOH of 5–10 €/kg by using available wind electricity. At this LCOH the future operational cost of FCEBs in Belfast Cork and Dublin can be competitive with public buses fuelled by diesel especially under carbon taxes more reflective of the environmental impact of fossil fuels.
Influence of the Gas Injector Configuration on the Temperature Evolution During Refueling of On-board Hydrogen Tanks
Jul 2016
Publication
In this article we show a refuelling strategy analysis using different injector configurations to refuel a 70 MPa composite reinforced type 4 tank. The gas has been injected through single openings of different diameters (3 mm 6 mm and 10 mm) and alternatively through multiple small holes (4 × 3 mm). For each injector configuration slow (12 min) and faster (3 min) fillings have been performed. The gas temperature has been measured at different positions inside the tank as well as the temperatures of the wall materials at various locations: on the external surface and at the interface between the liner and the fiber reinforced composite. In general the larger the injector diameter and the slower the filling the higher the chance that the gas develops vertical temperature gradients (a so-called gas temperature stratification) resulting in higher than average temperatures near the top of the tank and lower than average at its bottom. While the single 3 mm opening injector causes homogeneous gas temperatures for both filling speeds both the 6 mm and 10 mm opening injectors induce gas temperature stratification during the 12 min fillings. The injector with multiple holes has an area comparable to the 6 mm single opening injector: in general this more complex geometry tends to limit the inhomogeneity of gas temperatures during slow fillings. When gas temperature stratification develops the wall materials temperature is also locally affected. This results in a higher than average temperature at the top of the tank and higher the slower the filling.
Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda
Jul 2020
Publication
The FCH1JU and FCH2JU have proven effective in developing hydrogen technologies to a high Technology Readiness Level (TRL) allowing for large-scale deployment. Yet there is still an important work to be performed in terms of Research and Innovation in order to develop the next generation of products as well as technologies that did not reach a sufficiently high TRL to envisage a large-scale deployment.<br/><br/>Within the framework of the preparation of the foreseen Clean Hydrogen for Europe (the third public-private partnership continuation of the FCH2JU) Hydrogen Europe and Hydrogen Europe Research have prepared their Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) which is made of a set of approximately 20 roadmaps. This SRIA represents the view of the private partner and will be used as a basis to develop the Multi Annual Work Plan (MAWP) of the Clean Hydrogen for Europe partnership. The current version (July 2020) is the final draft that has been submitted to the European Commission.
Fostering a Blue Economy: Offshore Renewable Energy
Dec 2020
Publication
Offshore renewable energy – including offshore wind and solar power as well as emerging ocean energy technologies – could support sustainable long-term development and drive a vibrant blue economy. For countries and communities around the world offshore renewables can provide reliable stable electricity as well as support water desalination and aquaculture.
This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) considers the status and prospects of offshore renewable sources and recommends key actions to accelerate their uptake.
The development of renewable sources and technologies at sea promises to spur new industries and create jobs in line with the global energy transition. Offshore wind towers with either fixed or floating foundations and floating solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays offer clear technological and logistical synergies with the existing offshore oil and gas industry.
Offshore renewables could provide clean power and ensure energy security for small island developing states (SIDS) and many of the least-developed countries (LDCs).
Among other findings:
This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) considers the status and prospects of offshore renewable sources and recommends key actions to accelerate their uptake.
The development of renewable sources and technologies at sea promises to spur new industries and create jobs in line with the global energy transition. Offshore wind towers with either fixed or floating foundations and floating solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays offer clear technological and logistical synergies with the existing offshore oil and gas industry.
Offshore renewables could provide clean power and ensure energy security for small island developing states (SIDS) and many of the least-developed countries (LDCs).
Among other findings:
- The predictability of power generation from ocean energy technologies complements the variable character solar PV and wind.
- Desalination of seawater using renewable energy sources – including solar and wind power but also direct solar and geothermal heat – can further enhance the sustainable blue economy.
- Renewable-based shipping powered with advanced biofuels hydrogen or synthetic fuels as alternatives to oil offer further synergies with offshore renewable energy.
- Islands and coastal territories could adopt renewable-based electric propulsion for short-distance (< 100 km) sea transport.
- Two reports released concurrently examine the potential for offshore renewables:
The Decarbonisation of Heat
Mar 2020
Publication
This paper proposes that whilst the exact pathway to decarbonising heat in the UK is not yet clear there are a range of actions that could be taken in the next ten years to shift heat onto the right route to meet our 2050 net zero obligation. We already possess many of the skills and technologies required but there are a number of significant barriers preventing a spontaneous movement towards low carbon heat on the scale required – a starting impulse is needed.<br/><br/>Energy efficiency and low carbon heating have the potential to radically improve the quality of life of not just the poorest in our society but all residents of the United Kingdom. With the right approach the decarbonisation of heat can improve health outcomes for millions create new jobs in manufacturing and construction reduce air pollution in our cities and reduce the burden on our health service. This in addition to leading the world in mitigating the climate emergency.
Insights into Renewable Hydrogen Energy: Recent Advances and Prospects
Jan 2020
Publication
Presently the fulfilment of world’s energy demand highly relies on the fossil fuel i.e. coal oil and natural gas. Fossil fuels pose threat to environment and biological systems on the earth. Usage of these fuels leads to an increase in the CO2 content in the atmosphere that causes global warming and undesirable climatic changes. Additionally these are limited sources of energy those will eventually dwindle. There is huge urge of identifying and utilizing the renewable energy resources to replace these fossil fuels in the near future as it is expected to have no impact on environment and thus would enable one to provide energy security. Hydrogen is one of the most desirable fuel capable of replacing vanishing hydrocarbons. In this review we present the status of energy demands recent advances in renewable energy and the prospects of hydrogen as a future fuel are highlighted. It gives a broad overview of different energy systems and mainly focuses on different technologies and their reliability for the production of hydrogen in present and future.
Carbon Capture and Storage Could Clear a Path to the UK's Carbon Reduction Targets: An ETI Technology Programme Highlight Report
Sep 2014
Publication
Capturing and sealing away carbon dioxide released from industrial processes and electricity generation is acknowledged internationally to be potentially a winning intervention in the battle against climate change. The collected technologies that make up Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) could remove more than 90% of the carbon emissions from energy intensive industries and electricity production. In power generation CCS not only provides low-carbon output but it also preserves capacity in fossil fuel-fired plant to respond to shifts in demand. This is a near-unique combination that could mitigate the different shortcomings of harnessing the wind the sun or nuclear fission.<br/>CCS could clear a path to the UK’s carbon reduction targets; secure its energy supplies; and reduce the cost of those achievements. With CCS in play a low-carbon future with secure energy supplies becomes affordable. However without our research has found that the costs of meeting the UK’s lowcarbon targets could double to £60bn a year by 2050 at today’s prices.<br/>However CCS has to be honed technically and commercially before it can become a reality. ETI supported by its partners has made important progress and continues to do so.
An Intelligent Site Selection Model for Hydrogen Refueling Stations Based on Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation and Artificial Neural Network—A Case Study of Shanghai
Feb 2022
Publication
With the gradual popularization of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) the construction and planning of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) are increasingly important. Taking operational HRSs in China’s coastal and major cities as examples we consider the main factors affecting the site selection of HRSs in China from the three aspects of economy technology and society to establish a site selection evaluation system for hydrogen refueling stations and determine the weight of each index through the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Then combined with fuzzy comprehensive evaluation (FCE) method and artificial neural network model (ANN) FCE method is used to evaluate HRS in operation in China's coastal areas and major cities and we used the resulting data obtained from the comprehensive evaluation as the training data to train the neural network. So an intelligent site selection model for HRSs based on fuzzy comprehensive evaluation and artificial neural network model (FCE-ANN) is proposed. The planned HRSs in Shanghai are evaluated and an optimal site selection of the HRS is obtained. The results show that the optimal HRSs site selected by the FCE-ANN model is consistent with the site selection obtained by the FCE method and the accuracy of the FCE-ANN model is verified. The findings of this study may provide some guidelines for policy makers in planning the hydrogen refueling stations
Integrated Ni-P-S Nanosheets Array as Superior Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Generation
Jan 2017
Publication
Searching for efficient and robust non-noble electrocatalysts for hydrogen generation is extremely desirable for future green energy systems. Here we present the synthesis of integrated Ni-P-S nanosheets array including Ni2P and NiS on nickel foam by a simple simultaneous phosphorization and sulfurization strategy. The resultant sample with optimal composition exhibits superior electrocatalytic performance for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in a wide pH range. In alkaline media it can generate current densities of 10 20 and 100 mA cm−2 at low overpotentials of only −101.9 −142.0 and −207.8 mV with robust durability. It still exhibits high electrocatalytic activities even in acid or neutral media. Such superior electrocatalytic performances can be mainly attributed to the synergistic enhancement of the hybrid Ni-P-S nanosheets array with integration microstructure. The kind of catalyst gives a new insight on achieving efficient and robust hydrogen generation.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles and Hydrogen Balancing 100 Percent Renewable and Integrated National Transportation and Energy Systems
Feb 2021
Publication
Future national electricity heating cooling and transport systems need to reach zero emissions. Significant numbers of back-up power plants as well as large-scale energy storage capacity are required to guarantee the reliability of energy supply in 100 percent renewable energy systems. Electricity can be partially converted into hydrogen which can be transported via pipelines stored in large quantities in underground salt caverns to overcome seasonal effects and used as electricity storage or as a clean fuel for transport. The question addressed in this paper is how parked and grid-connected hydrogen-fuelled Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles might balance 100 per cent renewable electricity heating cooling and transport systems at the national level in Denmark Germany Great Britain France and Spain? Five national electricity heating cooling and transport systems are modeled for the year 2050 for the five countries assuming only 50 percent of the passenger cars to be grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles the remaining Battery Electric Vehicles. The grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle fleet can always balance the energy systems and their usage is low having load factors of 2.1–5.5 percent corresponding to an average use of 190–480 h per car per year. At peak times occurring only a few hours per year 26 to 43 percent of the grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle are required and in particular for energy systems with high shares of solar energy such as Spain balancing by grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles is mainly required during the night which matches favorably with driving usage.
Safety Considerations of Hydrogen Application in Shipping in Comparison to LNG
Apr 2022
Publication
Shipping accounts for about 3% of global CO2 emissions. In order to achieve the target set by the Paris Agreement IMO introduced their GHG strategy. This strategy envisages 50% emission reduction from international shipping by 2050 compared with 2008. This target cannot be fulfilled if conventional fuels are used. Amongst others hydrogen is considered to be one of the strong candidates as a zero-emissions fuel. Yet concerns around the safety of its storage and usage have been formulated and need to be addressed. “Safety” in this article is defined as the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. This article aims to propose a new way of comparing two systems with regard to their safety. Since safety cannot be directly measured fuzzy set theory is used to compare linguistic terms such as “safer”. This method is proposed to be used during the alternative design approach. This approach is necessary for deviations from IMO rules for example when hydrogen should be used in shipping. Additionally the properties of hydrogen that can pose a hazard such as its wide flammability range are identified.
A Portfolio of Power-Trains for Europe- A Fact Based Analysis
Nov 2010
Publication
This report is prepared by thirty of the largest global car manufacturers oil and gas companies utilities equipment manufacturers NGOs governmental and clean energy organisations with the collaboration of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking.<br/>The analysis compares the economics sustainability and performance of the vehicles and infrastructures needed to reach the 80% decarbonisation goal set by the<br/>European Union and is an unprecedented effort from industry and other stakeholders to analyse the role of the various new car-types in meeting this objective on the basis of proprietary industrial data.
Anionic Structural Effect in Liquid–liquid Separation of Phenol from Model Oil by Choline Carboxylate Ionic Liquid
Feb 2019
Publication
The synthesis of low-cost and highly active electrodes for both oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is very important for water splitting. In this work the novel amorphous iron-nickel phosphide (FeP-Ni) nanocone arrays as efficient bifunctional electrodes for overall water splitting have been in-situ assembled on conductive three-dimensional (3D) Ni foam via a facile and mild liquid deposition process. It is found that the FeP-Ni electrode demonstrates highly efficient electrocatalytic performance toward overall water splitting. In 1 M KOH electrolyte the optimal FeP-Ni electrode drives a current density of 10 mA/cm2 at an overpotential of 218 mV for the OER and 120 mV for the HER and can attain such current density for 25 h without performance regression. Moreover a two-electrode electrolyzer comprising the FeP-Ni electrodes can afford 10 mA/cm2 electrolysis current at a low cell voltage of 1.62 V and maintain long-term stability as well as superior to that of the coupled RuO2/NF‖Pt/C/NF cell. Detailed characterizations confirm that the excellent electrocatalytic performances for water splitting are attributed to the unique 3D morphology of nanocone arrays which could expose more surface active sites facilitate electrolyte diffusion benefit charge transfer and also favorable bubble detachment behavior. Our work presents a facile and cost-effective pathway to design and develop active self-supported electrodes with novel 3D morphology for water electrolysis.
Strategies for Joint Procurement of Fuel Cell Buses: A Study for the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
Jun 2018
Publication
The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) has supported a range of initiatives in recent years designed to develop hydrogen fuel cell buses to a point where they can fulfil their promise as a mainstream zero emission vehicle for public transport.<br/>Within this study 90 different European cities and regions have been supported in understanding the business case of fuel cell bus deployment and across these locations. The study analyses the funding and financing for fuel cell bus deployment to make them become a mainstream zero emission choice for public transport providers in cities and regions across Europe. It also outlines possible solutions for further deployment of FC buses beyond the subsidised phase.<br/>In the light of the experience of the joint tender process in the UK and in Germany the study highlights best practices for ordering fuel cell buses. Other innovative instruments explored in other countries for the orders of large quantities of fuel cells buses are presented: Special Purpose Vehicles and centralised purchase office. Finally the study deeply analyses the funding and financing for fuel cell bus deployment to make them become a mainstream zero emission choice for public transport providers in cities and regions across Europe.
World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway
Mar 2021
Publication
Dolf Gielen,
Ricardo Gorini,
Rodrigo Leme,
Gayathri Prakash,
Nicholas Wagner,
Luis Janeiro,
Sean Collins,
Maisarah Kadir,
Elisa Asmelash,
Rabia Ferroukhi,
Ulrike Lehr,
Xavier Garcia Casals,
Diala Hawila,
Bishal Parajuli,
Elizabeth Press,
Paul Durrant,
Seungwoo Kang,
Martina Lyons,
Carlos Ruiz,
Trish Mkutchwa,
Emanuele Taibi,
Herib Blanco,
Francisco Boshell,
Arina Anise,
Elena Ocenic,
Roland Roesch,
Gabriel Castellanos,
Gayathri Nair,
Barbara Jinks,
Asami Miketa,
Michael Taylor,
Costanza Strinati,
Michael Renner and
Deger Saygin
The World Energy Transitions Outlook preview outlines a pathway for the world to achieve the Paris Agreement goals and halt the pace of climate change by transforming the global energy landscape. This preview presents options to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C and bring CO2 emissions closer to net zero by mid-century offering high-level insights on technology choices investment needs and the socio-economic contexts of achieving a sustainable resilient and inclusive energy future.
Meeting CO2 reduction targets by 2050 will require a combination of: technology and innovation to advance the energy transition and improve carbon management; supportive and proactive policies; associated job creation and socio-economic improvements; and international co-operation to guarantee energy availability and access.
Among key findings:
This preview identifies opportunities to support informed policy and decision making to establish a new global energy system. Following this preview and aligned with the UN High-Level Dialogue process the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) will release the full report which will provide a comprehensive vision and accompanying policy measures for the transition.
Meeting CO2 reduction targets by 2050 will require a combination of: technology and innovation to advance the energy transition and improve carbon management; supportive and proactive policies; associated job creation and socio-economic improvements; and international co-operation to guarantee energy availability and access.
Among key findings:
- Proven technologies for a net-zero energy system already largely exist today. Renewable power green hydrogen and modern bioenergy will dominate the world of energy of the future.
- A combination of technologies is needed to keep us on a 1.5°C climate pathway. These include increasingly efficient energy production to ensure economic growth; decarbonised power systems that are dominated by renewables; increased use of electricity in buildings industry and transport to support decarbonisation; expanded production and use of green hydrogen synthetic fuels and feedstocks; and targeted use of sustainably sourced biomass.
- In anticipation of the coming energy transition financial markets and investors are already directing capital away from fossil fuels and towards other energy technologies including renewables.
- Energy transition investment will have to increase by 30% over planned investment to a total of USD 131 trillion between now and 2050 corresponding to USD 4.4 trillion on average every year.
- National social and economic policies will play fundamental roles in delivering the energy transition at the speed required to restrict global warming to 1.5°C.
This preview identifies opportunities to support informed policy and decision making to establish a new global energy system. Following this preview and aligned with the UN High-Level Dialogue process the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) will release the full report which will provide a comprehensive vision and accompanying policy measures for the transition.
Development of a Gaseous and Solid-state Hybrid System for Stationary Hydrogen Energy Storage
Jun 2020
Publication
Hydrogen can serve as a carrier to store renewable energy in large scale. However hydrogen storage still remains a challenge in the current stage. It is difficult to meet the technical requirements applying the conventional storage of compressed gaseous hydrogen in high-pressure tanks or the solid-state storage of hydrogen in suitable materials. In the present work a gaseous and solid-state (G-S) hybrid hydrogen storage system with a low working pressure below 5 MPa for a 10 kW hydrogen energy storage experiment platform is developed and validated. A Ti−Mn type hydrogen storage alloy with an effective hydrogen capacity of 1.7 wt% was prepared for the G-S hybrid hydrogen storage system. The G-S hybrid hydrogen storage tank has a high volumetric hydrogen storage density of 40.07 kg H2 m−3 and stores hydrogen under pressure below 5 MPa. It can readily release enough hydrogen at a temperature as low as −15 °C when the FC system is not fully activated and hot water is not available. The energy storage efficiency of this G-S hybrid hydrogen storage system is calculated to be 86.4%−95.9% when it is combined with a FC system. This work provides a method on how to design a G-S hydrogen storage system based on practical demands and demonstrates that the G-S hybrid hydrogen storage is a promising method for stationary hydrogen storage application.
Co-CoOx Supported onto TiO2 Coated with Carbon as a Catalyst for Efficient and Stable Hydrogen Generation from Ammonia Borane
Apr 2020
Publication
Ammonia borane (AB) can be catalytically hydrolyzed to provide hydrogen at room temperature due to its high potentaial for hydrogen storage. Non-precious metal heterogeneous catalysts have broad application in the field of energy catalysis. In this article catalysts precursor is obtained from Co-Ti-resorcinol-formaldehyde resin by sol–gel method. Co/TiO2@N-C (CTC) catalyst is prepared by calcining the precursor under high temperature conditions in nitrogen atmosphere. Co-CoOx/TiO2@N-C (COTC) is generated by the controllable oxidation reaction of CTC. The catalyst can effectively promote the release of hydrogen during the hydrolytic dehydrogenation of AB. High hydrogen generation at a specific rate of 5905 mL min−1 gCo−1 is achieved at room temperature. The catalyst retains its 85% initial catalytic activity even for its fifth time use in AB hydrolysis. The synergistic effect among Co Co3O4 and TiO2 promotes the rate limiting step with dissociation and activation of water molecules by reducing its activation energy. The applied method in this study promotes the development of non-precious metals in catalysis for utilization in clean energy sources.
Calibration of Hydrogen Coriolis Flow Meters Using Nitrogen and Air and Investigation of the Influence of Temperature on Measurement Accuracy
Feb 2021
Publication
The performance of four Coriolis flow meters designed for use in hydrogen refuelling stations was evaluated with air and nitrogen by three members of the MetroHyVe JRP consortium; NEL METAS and CESAME EXADEBIT.<br/>A wide range of conditions were tested overall with gas flow rates ranging from (0.05–2) kg/min and pressures ranging from (20–86) bar. The majority of tests were conducted at nominal pressures of either 20 bar or 40 bar in order to match the density of hydrogen at 350 bar and 20 °C or 700 bar and −40 °C. For the conditions tested pressure did not have a noticeable influence on meter performance.<br/>When the flow meters were operated at ambient temperatures and within the manufacturer's recommended flow rate ranges errors were generally within ±1%. Errors within ±0.5% were achievable for the medium to high flow rates.<br/>The influence of temperature on meter performance was also studied with testing under both stable and transient conditions and temperatures as low as −40 °C.<br/>When the tested flow meters were allowed sufficient time to reach thermal equilibrium with the incoming gas temperature effects were limited. The magnitude and spread of errors increased but errors within ±2% were achievable at moderate to high flow rates. Conversely errors as high as 15% were observed in tests where logging began before temperatures stabilised and there was a large difference in temperature between the flow meter and the incoming gas.<br/>One of the flow meters tested with nitrogen was later installed in a hydrogen refuelling station and tested against the METAS Hydrogen Field Test Standard (HFTS). Under these conditions errors ranged from 0.47% to 0.91%. Testing with nitrogen at the same flow rates yielded errors of −0.61% to −0.82%.
Patterned Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Working at Low Humidity
Jun 2021
Publication
High performing proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) that can operate at low relative humidity is a continuing technical challenge for PEMFC developers. In this work micro-patterned membranes are demonstrated at the cathode side by solution casting techniques using stainless steel moulds with laser-imposed periodic surface structures (LIPSS). Three types of patterns lotus lines and sharklet are investigated for their influence on the PEMFC power performance at varying humidity conditions. The experimental results show that the cathode electrolyte pattern in all cases enhances the fuel cell power performance at 100% relative humidity (RH). However only the sharklet pattern exhibits a significant improvement at 25% RH where a peak power density of 450 mW cm−2 is recorded compared with 150 mW cm−2 of the conventional flat membrane. The improvements are explored based on high-frequency resistance electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) and hydrogen crossover by in situ membrane electrode assembly (MEA) testing.
Initial Assessment of a Fuel Cell—Gas Turbine Hybrid Propulsion Concept
Jan 2022
Publication
A fuel cell—gas turbine hybrid propulsion concept is introduced and initially assessed. The concept uses the water mass flow produced by a hydrogen fuel cell in order to improve the efficiency and power output of the gas turbine engine through burner steam injection. Therefore the fuel cell product water is conditioned through a process of condensation pressurization and revaporization. The vaporization uses the waste heat of the gas turbine exhaust. The functional principles of the system concept are introduced and discussed and appropriate methodology for an initial concept evaluation is formulated. Essential technology fields are surveyed in brief. The impact of burner steam injection on gas turbine efficiency and sizing is parametrically modelled. Simplified parametric models of the fuel cell system and key components of the water treatment process are presented. Fuel cell stack efficiency and specific power levels are methodically derived from latest experimental studies at the laboratory scale. The overall concept is assessed for a liquid hydrogen fueled short-/medium range aircraft application. Block fuel savings of up to 7.1% are found for an optimum design case based on solid oxide fuel cell technology. The optimum design features a gas turbine water-to-air ratio of 6.1% in cruise and 62% reduced high-level NOx emissions.
Hydrogen Refuelling Stations in the Netherlands: An Intercomparison of Quantitative Risk Assessments Used for Permitting
May 2018
Publication
As of 2003 15 hydrogen refuelling stations (HRSs) have been deployed in the Netherlands. To become established the HRS has to go through a permitting procedure. An important document of the permitting dossier is the quantitative risk assessment (QRA) as it assesses the risks of the HRS associated to people and buildings in the vicinity of the HRS. In the Netherlands a generic prescribed approach exists on how to perform a QRA however specific guidelines for HRSs do not exist. An intercomparison among the QRAs of permitted HRSs has revealed significant inconsistencies on various aspects of the QRA: namely the inclusion of HRS sub-systems and components the HRS sub-system and component considerations as predefined components the application of failure scenarios the determination of failure frequencies the application of input parameters the consideration of preventive and mitigation measures as well as information provided regarding the HRS surroundings and the societal risk. It is therefore recommended to develop specific QRA guidelines for HRSs.
Performing While Transforming: The Role of Transmission Companies in the Energy Transition
Jun 2020
Publication
As the world prepares to exit from the COVID-19 crisis the pace of the global power revolution is expected to accelerate. A new publication from the World Energy Council in collaboration with PwC underscores the imperative for electricity grid owners and operators to fundamentally transform themselves to secure a role in a more integrated flexible and smarter electricity system in the energy transition to a low carbon future.
“Performing While Transforming: The Role of Transmission Companies in the Energy Transition” is based on in-depth interviews with CEOs and senior leaders from 37 transmission companies representing 35 countries and over 4 million kilometres – near global coverage - of the transmission network. While their roles will evolve transmission companies will remain at the heart of the electricity grid and need to balance the challenges of keeping the lights on while transforming themselves for the future.
The publication explores the various challenges affecting how transmission companies prepare and re-think their operations and business models and leverages the insights from interviewees to highlight four recommendations for transmission companies to consider in their journey:
“Performing While Transforming: The Role of Transmission Companies in the Energy Transition” is based on in-depth interviews with CEOs and senior leaders from 37 transmission companies representing 35 countries and over 4 million kilometres – near global coverage - of the transmission network. While their roles will evolve transmission companies will remain at the heart of the electricity grid and need to balance the challenges of keeping the lights on while transforming themselves for the future.
The publication explores the various challenges affecting how transmission companies prepare and re-think their operations and business models and leverages the insights from interviewees to highlight four recommendations for transmission companies to consider in their journey:
- Focus on the future through enhanced forecasting and scenario planning
- Shape the ecosystem by collaborating with new actors and enhancing interconnectivity
- Embrace automation and technology to optimise processes and ensure digital delivery
- Transform organisation to attract new talent and maintain social licence with consumers
Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Hydrogen-fueled Solid Oxide Fuel Cell System for Micro-grid Applications - Effect of Failure and Degradation on Transient Performance
May 2020
Publication
We use a detailed solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) model for micro-grid applications to analyze the effect of failure and degradation on system performance. Design and operational constraints on a component and system level are presented. A degrees of freedom analysis identifies controlled and manipulated system variables which are important for control. Experimental data are included to model complex degradation phenomena of the SOFC unit. Rather than using a constant value a spatially distributed degradation rate as function of temperature and current density is used that allows to study trajectory based performance deterioration. The SOFC unit is assumed to consist of multiple stacks. The failure scenario studied is the loss of one individual SOFC stack e.g. due to breakage of sealing or a series of fuel cells. Simulations reveal that degradation leads to significant drifts from the design operating point. Moreover failure of individual stacks may bring the still operating power generation unit into a regime where further failures and accelerated degradation is more likely. It is shown that system design dimensioning operation and control are strongly linked. Apart from specific quantitative results perhaps the main practical contribution are the collected constraints and the degrees of freedom analysis.
Hydrogen-related Challenges for the Steelmaker: The Search for Proper Testing
Jun 2017
Publication
The modern steelmaker of advanced high-strength steels has always been challenged with the conflicting targets of increased strength while maintaining or improving ductility. These new steels help the transportation sector including the automotive sector to achieve the goals of increased passenger safety and reduced emissions. With increasing tensile strengths certain steels exhibit an increased sensitivity towards hydrogen embrittlement (HE). The ability to characterize the material's sensitivity in an as-delivered condition has been developed and accepted (SEP1970) but the complexity of the stress states that can induce an embrittlement together with the wide range of applications for high-strength steels make the development of a standardized test for HE under in-service conditions extremely challenging. Some proposals for evaluating the material's sensitivity give an advantage to materials with a low starting ductility. Despite this newly developed materials can have a higher original elongation with only a moderate reduction in elongation due to hydrogen. This work presents a characterization of new materials and their sensitivity towards HE.
This article is part of the themed issue ‘The challenges of hydrogen and metals’.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
This article is part of the themed issue ‘The challenges of hydrogen and metals’.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Hydrogen Scaling Up: A Sustainable Pathway for the Global Energy Transition
Nov 2017
Publication
Deployed at scale hydrogen could account for almost one-fifth of total final energy consumed by 2050. This would reduce annual CO2 emissions by roughly 6 gigatons compared to today’s levels and contribute roughly 20% of the abatement required to limit global warming to two degrees Celsius.
On the demand side the Hydrogen Council sees the potential for hydrogen to power about 10 to 15 million cars and 500000 trucks by 2030 with many uses in other sectors as well such as industry processes and feedstocks building heating and power power generation and storage. Overall the study predicts that the annual demand for hydrogen could increase tenfold by 2050 to almost 80 EJ in 2050 meeting 18% of total final energy demand in the 2050 two-degree scenario. At a time when global populations are expected to grow by two billion people by 2050 hydrogen technologies have the potential to create opportunities for sustainable economic growth.
“The world in the 21st century must transition to widespread low carbon energy use” said Takeshi Uchiyamada Chairman of Toyota Motor Corporation and co-chair of the Hydrogen Council. “Hydrogen is an indispensable resource to achieve this transition because it can be used to store and transport wind solar and other renewable electricity to power transportation and many other things. The Hydrogen Council has identified seven roles for hydrogen which is why we are encouraging governments and investors to give it a prominent role in their energy plans. The sooner we get the hydrogen economy going the better and we are all committed to making this a reality.”
Achieving such scale would require substantial investments; approximately US$20 to 25 billion annually for a total of about US$280 billion until 2030. Within the right regulatory framework – including long-term stable coordination and incentive policies – the report considers that attracting these investments to scale the technology is feasible. The world already invests more than US$1.7 trillion in energy each year including US$650 billion in oil and gas US$300 billion in renewable electricity and more than US$300 billion in the automotive industry.
“This study confirms the place of hydrogen as a central pillar in the energy transition and encourages us in our support of its large-scale deployment. Hydrogen will be an unavoidable enabler for the energy transition in certain sectors and geographies. The sooner we make this happen the sooner we will be able to enjoy the needed benefits of Hydrogen at the service of our economies and our societies” said Benoît Potier Chairman and CEO Air Liquide. “Solutions are technologically mature and industry players are committed. We need concerted stakeholder efforts to make this happen; leading this effort is the role of the Hydrogen Council.”
The launch of the new roadmap came during the Sustainability Innovation Forum in the presence of 18 senior members of the Hydrogen led by co-chairs Takeshi Uchiyamada Chairman of Toyota and Benoît Potier Chairman and CEO Air Liquide and accompanied by Prof. Aldo Belloni CEO of The Linde Group Woong-chul Yang Vice Chairman of Hyundai Motor Company and Anne Stevens Board Member of Anglo American. During the launch the Hydrogen Council called upon investors policymakers and businesses to join them in accelerating deployment of hydrogen solutions for the energy transition. It was also announced that Woong-chul Yang of Hyundai Motor Company will succeed Takeshi Uchiyamada of Toyota in the rotating role of the Council’s co-chair and preside the group together with Benoit Potier CEO Air Liquide in 2018. Mr Uchiyamada is planning to return as Co-chairman in 2020 coinciding with the Tokyo Olympic and Paalympic Games an important milestone for showcasing hydrogen society and mobility.
You can download the full report from the Hydrogen Council website here
On the demand side the Hydrogen Council sees the potential for hydrogen to power about 10 to 15 million cars and 500000 trucks by 2030 with many uses in other sectors as well such as industry processes and feedstocks building heating and power power generation and storage. Overall the study predicts that the annual demand for hydrogen could increase tenfold by 2050 to almost 80 EJ in 2050 meeting 18% of total final energy demand in the 2050 two-degree scenario. At a time when global populations are expected to grow by two billion people by 2050 hydrogen technologies have the potential to create opportunities for sustainable economic growth.
“The world in the 21st century must transition to widespread low carbon energy use” said Takeshi Uchiyamada Chairman of Toyota Motor Corporation and co-chair of the Hydrogen Council. “Hydrogen is an indispensable resource to achieve this transition because it can be used to store and transport wind solar and other renewable electricity to power transportation and many other things. The Hydrogen Council has identified seven roles for hydrogen which is why we are encouraging governments and investors to give it a prominent role in their energy plans. The sooner we get the hydrogen economy going the better and we are all committed to making this a reality.”
Achieving such scale would require substantial investments; approximately US$20 to 25 billion annually for a total of about US$280 billion until 2030. Within the right regulatory framework – including long-term stable coordination and incentive policies – the report considers that attracting these investments to scale the technology is feasible. The world already invests more than US$1.7 trillion in energy each year including US$650 billion in oil and gas US$300 billion in renewable electricity and more than US$300 billion in the automotive industry.
“This study confirms the place of hydrogen as a central pillar in the energy transition and encourages us in our support of its large-scale deployment. Hydrogen will be an unavoidable enabler for the energy transition in certain sectors and geographies. The sooner we make this happen the sooner we will be able to enjoy the needed benefits of Hydrogen at the service of our economies and our societies” said Benoît Potier Chairman and CEO Air Liquide. “Solutions are technologically mature and industry players are committed. We need concerted stakeholder efforts to make this happen; leading this effort is the role of the Hydrogen Council.”
The launch of the new roadmap came during the Sustainability Innovation Forum in the presence of 18 senior members of the Hydrogen led by co-chairs Takeshi Uchiyamada Chairman of Toyota and Benoît Potier Chairman and CEO Air Liquide and accompanied by Prof. Aldo Belloni CEO of The Linde Group Woong-chul Yang Vice Chairman of Hyundai Motor Company and Anne Stevens Board Member of Anglo American. During the launch the Hydrogen Council called upon investors policymakers and businesses to join them in accelerating deployment of hydrogen solutions for the energy transition. It was also announced that Woong-chul Yang of Hyundai Motor Company will succeed Takeshi Uchiyamada of Toyota in the rotating role of the Council’s co-chair and preside the group together with Benoit Potier CEO Air Liquide in 2018. Mr Uchiyamada is planning to return as Co-chairman in 2020 coinciding with the Tokyo Olympic and Paalympic Games an important milestone for showcasing hydrogen society and mobility.
You can download the full report from the Hydrogen Council website here
Consequence-based Safety Distances and Mitigation Measures for Gaseous Hydrogen Refueling Stations
Oct 2010
Publication
With the rapid development of hydrogen vehicle technology and large scale fuel cell vehicle (FCV) demonstration project worldwide more hydrogen refueling stations need to be built. Safety distances of hydrogen refueling stations have always been a public concern and have become a critical issue to further implementation of hydrogen station. In this paper safety distances for 35MPa and 70MPa gaseous hydrogen refueling station are evaluated on the basis of the maximum consequences likely to occur. Four typical consequences of hydrogen release are considered in modeling: physical explosion jet fire flash fire and confined vapor cloud explosion. Results show that physical explosion and the worst case of confined vapor cloud explosion produce the longest harm effect distances for instantaneous and continuous release respectively indicating that they may be considered as leading consequences for the determination of safety distances. For both 35MPa station and 70MPa station safety measures must be implemented because the calculated safety distances of most hydrogen facilities can not meet the criteria in national code if without sufficient mitigation measures. In order to reduce the safety distances to meet the national code some mitigation measures are investigated including elevation of hydrogen facilities using smaller vessel and pipe work and setting enclosure around compressors. Results show that these measures are effective to improve safety but each has different effectiveness on safety distance reduction. The combination of these safety measures may effectively eliminate the hazard of 35MPa station however may be not enough for 70MPa station. Further improvements need to be studied for compressors inside 70MPa station.
A Roadmap for Financing Hydrogen Refueling Networks – Creating Prerequisites for H2-based Mobility
Sep 2014
Publication
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are zero tailpipe emission vehicles. Their large-scale deployment is expected to play a major role in the de-carbonization of transportation in the European Union (EU) and is therefore an important policy element at EU and Member State level.<br/>For FCEVs to be introduced to the market a network of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) first has to exist. From a technological point of view FCEVs are ready for serial production already: Hyundaiand Toyota plan to introduce FCEVs into key markets from 2015 and Daimler Ford and Nissan plan to launch mass-market FCEVs in 2017.<br/>At the moment raising funds for building the hydrogen refuelling infrastructure appears to be challenging.<br/>This study explores options for financing the HRS rollout which facilitate the involvement of private lenders and investors. It presents a number of different financing options involving public-sector bank loans funding from private-sector strategic equity investors commercial bank loans private equity and funding from infrastructure investors. The options outline the various requirements forn accessing these sources of funding with regard to project structure incentives and risk mitigation. The financing options were developed on the basis of discussions with stakeholders in the HRS rollout from industry and with financiers.<br/>This study was prepared by Roland Berger in close contact with European Investment banks and a series of private banks.<br/>This study explores in details the business cases for HRS in Germany and UK. The conclusion can be easily extrapolate to other countries.
What Will Fuel Transport Systems of the Future?
Nov 2011
Publication
This paper seeks to decry the notion of a single solution or “silver bullet” to replace petroleum products with renewable transport fuel. At different times different technological developments have been in vogue as the panacea for future transport needs: for quite some time hydrogen has been perceived as a transport fuel that would be all encompassing when the technology was mature. Liquid biofuels have gone from exalted to unsustainable in the last ten years. The present flavor of the month is the electric vehicle. This paper examines renewable transport fuels through a review of the literature and attempts to place an analytical perspective on a number of technologies.
A Cost Estimation for CO2 Reduction and Reuse by Methanation from Cement Industry Sources in Switzerland
Feb 2018
Publication
The Swiss government has signed the Paris Climate Agreement and various measures need to be implemented in order to reach the target of a 50% reduction in CO2 emissions in Switzerland by 2030 compared with the value for 1990. Considering the fact that the production of cement in Switzerland accounts around 2.5 million ton for CO2 emissions of which corresponds to roughly 7% of the country's total CO2 emissions the following article examines how this amount could be put to meaningful use in order to create a new value-added chain through CO2 methanation and thus reduce the consumption and import of fossil fuels in Switzerland. With power-to-gas technology this CO2 along with regenerative hydrogen from photovoltaics can be converted into methane which can then be fed into the existing natural-gas grid. This economic case study shows a cost prediction for conversion of all the CO2 from the cement industry into methane by using the technologies available today in order to replacing fossil methane imports.
The Impact of Hydrogen Admixture into Natural Gas on Residential and Commercial Gas Appliances
Jan 2022
Publication
Hydrogen as a carbon-free fuel is commonly expected to play a major role in future energy supply e.g. as an admixture gas in natural gas grids. Which impacts on residential and commercial gas appliances can be expected due to the significantly different physical and chemical properties of hydrogen-enriched natural gas? This paper analyses and discusses blends of hydrogen and natural gas from the perspective of combustion science. The admixture of hydrogen into natural gas changes the properties of the fuel gas. Depending on the combustion system burner design and other boundary conditions these changes may cause higher combustion temperatures and laminar combustion velocities while changing flame positions and shapes are also to be expected. For appliances that are designed for natural gas these effects may cause risk of flashback reduced operational safety material deterioration higher nitrogen oxides emissions (NOx) and efficiency losses. Theoretical considerations and first measurements indicate that the effects of hydrogen admixture on combustion temperatures and the laminar combustion velocities are often largely mitigated by a shift towards higher air excess ratios in the absence of combustion control systems but also that common combustion control technologies may be unable to react properly to the presence of hydrogen in the fuel.
Study on the Use of Fuel Cells and Hydrogen in the Railway Environment
Jun 2019
Publication
This study outlines a pathway for commercialisation of stationary fuel cells in distributed generation across Europe. It has been sponsored by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) a public-private partnership between the European Commission the fuel cell and hydrogen industry and a number of research bodies and associations. The FCH JU supports research technology development and demonstration activities in the field of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies in Europe. The study explores how stationary fuel cells can benefit users how they can be brought to the market what hurdles still exist and how their diffusion may foster Europe's transition into a new energy age.
Sector Coupling Potential of Wind-based Hydrogen Production and Fuel Cell Train Operation in Regional Rail Transport in Berlin and Brandenburg
Jan 2021
Publication
As the transport sector is ought to be decarbonized fuel-cell-powered trains are a viable zero-tailpipe technology alternative to the widely employed diesel multiple units in regional railway service on non-electrified tracks. Carbon-free hydrogen can be provided by water-electrolysis from renewable energies. In this study we introduce an approach to assess the potential of wind-based hydrogen for use in adjacent regional rail transport by applying a GIS approach in conjunction with a site-level cost model. In Brandenburg about 10.1 million train-km annually could be switched to fuel cell electric train operation. This relates to a diesel consumption of appr. 9.5 million liters today. If fuel cell trains would be employed that translated to 2198 annual tons hydrogen annually. At favorable sites hydrogen costs of approx. 6.40 €/kg - including costs of hydrogen refueling stations - could be achieved. Making excess hydrogen available for other consumers would further decrease hydrogen production costs.
FCH JU – Key to Sustainable Energy and Transport
Jan 2019
Publication
This brochure offers an overview of the main applications of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies and how they work and provides insights into our programme and our accomplishments.
Well-to-wheel Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Heavy-duty Transports: Influence of Electricity Carbon Intensity
Feb 2021
Publication
There are several alternatives for how to phase out diesel in heavy-duty transports thereby reducing the sector’s climate change impact. This paper assesses the well-to-wheel (WTW) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of energy carriers for heavy-duty vehicles analyzing the effect of the carbon intensity of the electricity used in production. The results show that energy carriers with high electricity dependence are not necessarily better than diesel from a WTW perspective. In particular fuels produced through electrolysis are not well suited in carbon-intense electricity systems. Conversely waste-based biofuels have low GHG emissions regardless of the electricity system. Battery-electric buses show a large reduction of GHG emissions compared to diesel buses and many other alternatives while battery-electric trucks have higher GHG emissions than diesel in carbon intense electricity systems. Thus electrifying transports or switching to renewable fuels will not suffice if the electricity system is not made renewable first.
Fuel Cell Electric Buses: Potential for Sustainable Public Transport in Europe
Oct 2015
Publication
This report provides an outlook for jointly achieving a commercialisation pathway.<br/>Building on the findings of the 2012 FCH JU technology study on alternative powertrains for urban buses this report provides an assessment of the commercialisation pathway from an operational perspective. It reflects the actual situation in which operators deploy large scale demonstration projects in the next years from a rather conservative angle and argues why it makes sense to deploy FC buses now. The insights are based on first-hand data and assessments of the coalition members from the hydrogen and fuel cell industry as well as local governments and public transport operators in Europe.
Are We Building Back Better? Evidence from 2020 and Pathways for Inclusive Green Recovery Spending
Mar 2021
Publication
COVID-19 has led to a global crisis threatening the lives and livelihoods of the most vulnerable by increasing poverty exacerbating inequalities and damaging long-term economic growth prospects. The report Are We Building Back Better? Evidence from 2020 and Pathways for Inclusive Green Recovery Spending provides an analysis of over 3500 fiscal policies announced by leading economies in 2020 and calls for governments to invest more sustainably and tackle inequalities as they stimulate growth in the wake of the devastation wrought by the pandemic.
UKERC Research Atlas Landscape – Fuel Cells
Dec 2013
Publication
This UKERC Research Atlas Landscape provides an overview of the competencies and publicly funded activities in fuel cell research development and demonstration (RD&D) in the UK. It covers the main funding streams research providers infrastructure networks and UK participation in international activities.
Leakage-type-based Analysis of Accidents Involving Hydrogen Fueling Stations in Japan and USA
Aug 2016
Publication
To identify the safety issues associated with hydrogen fuelling stations incidents at such stations in Japan and the USA were analyzed considering the regulations in these countries. Leakage due to the damage and fracture of main bodies of apparatuses and pipes in Japan and the USA is mainly caused by design error that is poorly planned fatigue. Considering the present incidents in these countries adequate consideration of the usage environment in the design is very important. Leakage from flanges valves and seals in Japan is mainly caused by screw joints. If welded joints are to be used in hydrogen fuelling stations in Japan strength data for welded parts should be obtained and pipe thicknesses should be reduced. Leakage due to other factors e.g. external impact in Japan and the USA is mainly caused by human error. To realize self-serviced hydrogen fuelling stations safety measures should be developed to prevent human error by fuel cell vehicle users.
Toward a Fossil Free Future with HYBRIT: Development of Iron and Steelmaking Technology in Sweden and Finland
Jul 2020
Publication
The Swedish and Finnish steel industry has a world-leading position in terms of efficient blast furnace operations with low CO2 emissions. This is a result of a successful development work carried out in the 1980s at LKAB (Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Aktiebolag mining company) and SSAB (steel company) followed by the closing of sinter plants and transition to 100% pellet operation at all of SSAB’s five blast furnaces. However to further reduce CO2 emission in iron production a new breakthrough technology is necessary. In 2016 SSAB teamed up with LKAB and Vattenfall AB (energy company) and launched a project aimed at investigating the feasibility of a hydrogen-based sponge iron production process with fossil-free electricity as the primary energy source: HYBRIT (Hydrogen Breakthrough Ironmaking Technology). A prefeasibility study was carried out in 2017 which concluded that the proposed process route is technically feasible and economically attractive for conditions in northern Sweden/Finland. A decision was made in February 2018 to build a pilot plant and construction started in June 2018 with completion of the plant planned in summer 2020 followed by experimental campaigns the following years. Parallel with the pilot plant activities a four-year research program was launched from the autumn of 2016 involving several research institutes and universities in Sweden to build knowledge and competence in several subject areas.
Implementing Maritime Battery-electric and Hydrogen Solutions: A Technological Innovation Systems Analysis
Sep 2020
Publication
Maritime transport faces increasing pressure to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to be in accordance with the Paris Agreement. For this to happen low- and zero-carbon energy solutions need to be developed. In this paper we draw on sustainability transition literature and introduce the technological innovation system (TIS) framework to the field of maritime transportation research. The TIS approach analytically distinguishes between different innovation system functions that are important for new technologies to develop and diffuse beyond an early phase of experimentation. This provides a basis for technology-specific policy recommendations. We apply the TIS framework to the case of battery-electric and hydrogen energy solutions for coastal maritime transport in Norway. Whereas both battery-electric and hydrogen solutions have developed rapidly the former is more mature and has a strong momentum. Public procurement and other policy instruments have been crucial for developments to date and will be important for these technologies to become viable options for shipping more generally.
The Influence of Degradation Effects in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells on Life Cycle Assessment Modelling and Environmental Impact Indicators
Apr 2022
Publication
Although proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems are expected to have lower environmental impacts in the operational phase compared to conventional energy conversion systems there are still certain economic operational and environmental setbacks. Durability under a wide range of operating conditions presents a challenge because degradation processes affect the PEMFC efficiency. Typically life cycle assessment (LCA) of PEMFC systems do not include performance degradation. Thus a novel semi-empirical PEMFC model is developed which includes degradation effects caused by different operational regimes (dynamic and steady-state). The model is integrated into LCA through life cycle inventory (LCI) to achieve a more realistic and accurate evaluation of environmental impacts. Verification of the model clearly showed that the use of existing LCI models underestimates the environmental impacts. This is especially evident when green hydrogen is used in PEMFC operational phase where manufacturing phase and maintenance (stack replacements) become more influential. Input parameters of the model can be modified to reflect technological improvements (e.g. platinum loading or durability) and evaluate the effects of future scenarios.
The Impact of Disruptive Powertrain Technologies on Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Heavy-duty Vehicles
Jan 2020
Publication
Minimising tailpipe emissions and the decarbonisation of transport in a cost effective way remains a major objective for policymakers and vehicle manufacturers. Current trends are rapidly evolving but appear to be moving towards solutions in which vehicles which are increasingly electrified. As a result we will see a greater linkage between the wider energy system and the transportation sector resulting in a more complex and mutual dependency. At the same time major investments into technological innovation across both sectors are yielding rapid advancements into on-board energy storage and more compact/lightweight on-board electricity generators. In the absence of sufficient technical data on such technology holistic evaluations of the future transportation sector and its energy sources have not considered the impact of a new generation of innovation in propulsion technologies. In this paper the potential impact of a number of novel powertrain technologies are evaluated and presented. The analysis considers heavy duty vehicles with conventional reciprocating engines powered by diesel and hydrogen hybrid and battery electric vehicles and vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells and freepiston engine generators (FPEGs). The benefits are compared for each technology to meet the expectations of representative medium and heavy-duty vehicle drivers. Analysis is presented in terms of vehicle type vehicle duty cycle fuel economy greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions impact on the vehicle etc.. The work shows that the underpinning energy vector and its primary energy source are the most significant factor for reducing primary energy consumption and net CO2 emissions. Indeed while an HGV with a BEV powertrain offers no direct tailpipe emissions it produces significantly worse lifecycle CO2 emissions than a conventional diesel powertrain. Even with a de-carbonised electricity system (100 g CO2/kWh) CO2 emissions are similar to a conventional Diesel fuelled HGV. For the HGV sector range is key to operator acceptability of new powertrain technologies. This analysis has shown that cumulative benefits of improved electrical powertrains on-board storage efficiency improvements and vehicle design in 2025 and 2035 mean that hydrogen and electric fuelled vehicles can be competitive on gravimetric and volumetric density. Overall the work demonstrates that presently there is no common powertrain solution appropriate for all vehicle types but how subtle improvements at a vehicle component level can have significant impact on the design choices for the wider energy system.
Scottish Offshore Wind to Green Hydrogen Opportunity Assessment
Dec 2020
Publication
Initial assessment of Scotland’s opportunity to produce green hydrogen from offshore wind
Summary of Key Findings
Summary of Key Findings
- Scotland has an abundant offshore wind resource that has the potential to be a vital component in our net zero transition. If used to produce green hydrogen offshore wind can help abate the emissions of historically challenging sectors such as heating transport and industry.
- The production of green hydrogen from offshore wind can help overcome Scotland’s grid constraints and unlock a massive clean power generation resource creating a clean fuel for Scottish industry and households and a highly valuable commodity to supply rapidly growing UK and European markets.
- The primary export markets for Scottish green hydrogen are expected to be in Northern Europe (Germany Netherlands & Belgium). Strong competition to supply these markets is expected to come from green hydrogen produced from solar energy in Southern Europe and North Africa.
- Falling wind and electrolyser costs will enable green hydrogen production to be cost-competitive in the key transport and heat sectors by 2032. Strategic investment in hydrogen transportation and storage is essential to unlocking the economic opportunity for Scotland.
- Xodus’ analysis supports a long-term outlook of LCoH falling towards £2/kg with an estimated reference cost of £2.3 /kg in 2032 for hydrogen delivered to shore.
- Scotland has extensive port and pipeline infrastructure that can be repurposed for hydrogen export to the rest of UK and to Europe. Pipelines from the ‘90s are optimal for this purpose as they are likely to retain acceptable mechanical integrity and have a metallurgy better suited to hydrogen service. A more detailed assessment of export options should be performed to provide a firm foundation for early commercial green hydrogen projects.
- There is considerable hydrogen supply chain overlap with elements of parallel sectors most notably the oil and gas offshore wind and subsea engineering sectors. Scotland already has a mature hydrocarbon supply chain which is engaged in supporting green hydrogen. However a steady pipeline of early projects supported by a clear financeable route to market will be needed to secure this supply chain capability through to widescale commercial deployment.
- There are gaps in the Scottish supply chain in the areas of design manufacture and maintenance of hydrogen production storage and transportation systems. Support including apprenticeships will be needed to develop indigenous skills and capabilities in these areas.
- The development of green hydrogen from offshore wind has the potential to create high value jobs a significant proportion which are likely to be in remote rural/coastal communities located close to offshore wind resources. These can serve as an avenue for workers to redeploy and develop skills learned from oil and gas in line with Just Transition principles.
Urban Buses: Alternative Powertrains for Europe: A Fact-based Analysis of the Role of Diesel Hybrid, Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Trolley and Battery Electric Powertrains
Dec 2012
Publication
A coalition of 40 industrial companies and government organizations financially supported by the FCH JU elaborated a technology neutral and fact-based comparative study on eight different powertrain technologies for urban buses in Europe from 2012 to 2030.<br/>According to the results of the study only fully electric powertrain buses (based on hydrogen batteries or trolley system) have the potential to achieve zero local emissions by drastically reducing well-to-wheel emissions.<br/>Following the positive comparative result for fuel cell hydrogen urban buses the FCH JU will launch a follow-up study that more specifically defines real uptake scenarios for market entry scheduled to starting before summer 2013.
Measuring Accuracy and Computational Capacity Trade-offs in an Hourly Integrated Energy System Model
Feb 2021
Publication
Improving energy system modelling capabilities can directly affect the quality of applied studies. However some modelling trade-offs are necessary as the computational capacity and data availability are constrained. In this paper we demonstrate modelling trade-offs resulting from the modification in the resolution of four modelling capabilities namely transitional scope European electricity interconnection hourly demand-side flexibility description and infrastructure representation. We measure the cost of increasing resolution in each capability in terms of computational time and several energy system modelling indicators notably system costs emission prices and electricity import and export levels. The analyses are performed in a national-level integrated energy system model with a linear programming approach that includes the hourly electricity dispatch with European nodes. We determined that reducing the transitional scope from seven to two periods can reduce the computational time by 75% while underestimating the objective function by only 4.6%. Modelers can assume a single European Union node that dispatches electricity at an aggregated level which underestimates the objective function by 1% while halving the computational time. Furthermore the absence of shedding and storage flexibility options can increase the curtailed electricity by 25% and 8% respectively. Although neglecting flexibility options can drastically decrease the computational time it can increase the sub-optimality by 31%. We conclude that an increased resolution in modelling flexibility options can significantly improve the results. While reducing the computational time by half the lack of electricity and gas infrastructure representation can underestimate the objective function by 4% and 6% respectively.
Combustion and Exhaust Emission Characteristics, and In-cylinder Gas Composition, of Hydrogen Enriched Biogas Mixtures in a Diesel Engine
Feb 2017
Publication
This paper presents a study undertaken on a naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine investigating the combustion and emission characteristics of CH4-CO2 and CH4-CO2 -H2 mixtures. These aspirated gas mixtures were pilot-ignited by diesel fuel while the engine load was varied between 0 and 7 bar IMEP by only adjusting the flow rate of the aspirated mixtures. The in-cylinder gas composition was also investigated when combusting CH4-CO2 and CH4-CO2-H2 mixtures at different engine loads with in cylinder samples collected using two different sampling arrangements. The results showed a longer ignition delay period and lower peak heat release rates when the proportion of CO2 was increased in the aspirated mixture. Exhaust CO2 emissions were observed to be higher for 60 CH4:40CO2 mixture but lower for the 80CH4:20CO2 mixture as compared to diesel fuel only combustion at all engine loads. Both exhaust and in-cylinder NOx levels were observed to decrease when the proportion of CO2 was increased; NOx levels increased when the proportion of H2 was increased in the aspirated mixture. In-cylinder NOx levels were observed to be higher in the region between the sprays as compared to within the spray core attributable to higher gas temperatures reached post ignition in that region.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technologies in Europe: Financial and Technology Outlook on the European Sector Ambition 2014-2020
Nov 2011
Publication
Sustainable secure and competitive energy supply and transport services are at the heart of the EU2020 strategy towards a low carbon and inclusive economy geared towards a reduction of 80% of CO2 emissions by 2050. This objective has been endorsed by the European Institutions and Member States. It is widely recognised that a technological shift and the deployment of new clean technologies are critical for a successful transition to such a new sustainable economy. Furthermore in addition to bringing a healthier environment and securing energy supply innovation will provide huge opportunities for the European economy. However this paradigm shift will not be purely driven by the market. A strong and determined commitment of public institutions and the private sector together are necessary to support the European political ambition. The period 2014-2020 will be critical to ensure that the necessary investments are realized to support the EU2020 vision. In terms of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies significant investments are required for (a) transportation for scaling up the car fleet and building up of refuelling infrastructure needs (b) hydrogen production technologies to integrate renewable intermittent power sources to the electrical grid (wind and solar) (c) stationary fuel cell applications with large demonstration projects in several European cities and (d) identified early markets (material handling vehicles back-up power systems) to allow for volume developments and decrease of system-costs.<br/>This Report summarizes the sector’s financial ambition to reach Europe’s objectives in 2020.
A Personal Retrospect on Three Decades of High Temperature Fuel Cell Research; Ideas and Lessons Learned
Feb 2021
Publication
In 1986 the Dutch national fuel cell program started. Fuel cells were developed under the paradigm of replacing conventional technology. Coal-fired power plants were to be replaced by large-scale MCFC power plants fuelled by hydrogen in a full-scale future hydrogen economy. With today's knowledge we will reflect on these and other ideas with respect to high temperature fuel cell development including the choice for the type of high temperature fuel cell. It is explained that based on thermodynamics proton conducting fuel cells would have been a better choice and the direct carbon fuel cell even more so with electrochemical gasification of carbon as the ultimate step. The specific characteristics of fuel cells and multisource multiproduct systems were not considered whereas we understand now that these can provide huge driving forces for the implementation of fuel cells compared to just replacing conventional combined heat and power production technology.
The Role of Initial Tank Temperature on Refuelling of On-board Hydrogen Tanks
Jun 2016
Publication
The influence of the initial tank temperature on the evolution of the internal gas temperature during the refuelling of on-board hydrogen tanks is investigated in this paper. Two different types of tanks four different fuel delivery temperatures (from ambient temperature refuelling to a pre-cooled hydrogen at −40 °C) several filling rates and initial pressures are considered. It has been found that the final gas temperature increases linearly with the increase of the initial tank temperature while the temperature increase (ΔT) and the final state of charge (SOC) decrease linearly with increasing the initial temperature. This dependency has been found to be larger on type III than on type IV tank and larger the larger the initial pressure. Additionally CFD simulations are performed to better understand the role of the relevant phenomena on the gas temperature histories e.g. gas compression gas mixing and heat transfer. By comparing the results of calculations with adiabatic and diathermal tank walls the effect of the initial gas temperature has been separated from the effect of the initial wall temperature on the process.
The Curious Case of the Conflicting Roles of Hydrogen in Global Energy Scenarios
Oct 2019
Publication
As energy systems transition from fossil-based to low-carbon they face many challenges particularly concerning energy security and flexibility. Hydrogen may help to overcome these challenges with potential as a transport fuel for heating energy storage conversion to electricity and in industry. Despite these opportunities hydrogen has historically had a limited role in influential global energy scenarios. Whilst more recent studies are beginning to include hydrogen the role it plays in different scenarios is extremely inconsistent. In this perspective paper reasons for this inconsistency are explored considering the modelling approach behind the scenario scenario design and data assumptions. We argue that energy systems are becoming increasingly complex and it is within these complexities that new technologies such as hydrogen emerge. Developing a global energy scenario that represents these complexities is challenging and in this paper we provide recommendations to help ensure that emerging technologies such as hydrogen are appropriately represented. These recommendations include: using the right modelling tools whilst knowing the limits of the model; including the right sectors and technologies; having an appropriate level of ambition; and making realistic data assumptions. Above all transparency is essential and global scenarios must do more to make available the modelling methods and data assumptions used.
The Battle between Battery and Fuel Cell Powered Electric Vehicles: A BWM Approach
Oct 2017
Publication
The transition to a more sustainable personal transportation sector requires the widespread adoption of electric vehicles. However a dominant design has not yet emerged and a standards battle is being fought between battery and hydrogen fuel cell powered electric vehicles. The aim of this paper is to analyze which factors are most likely to influence the outcome of this battle thereby reducing the uncertainty in the industry regarding investment decisions in either of these technologies. We examine the relevant factors for standard dominance and apply a multi-criteria decision-making method best worst method to determine the relative importance of these factors. The results indicate that the key factors include technological superiority compatibility and brand reputation and credibility. Our findings show that battery powered electric vehicles have a greater chance of winning the standards battle. This study contributes to theory by providing further empirical evidence that the outcome of standards battles can be explained and predicted by applying factors for standard success. We conclude that technology dominance in the automotive industry is mostly driven by technological characteristics and characteristics of the format supporter.
Production of High-purity Hydrogen from Paper Recycling Black Liquor via Sorption Enhanced Steam Reforming
Jul 2020
Publication
Environmentally friendly and energy saving treatment of black liquor (BL) a massively produced waste in Kraft papermaking process still remains a big challenge. Here by adopting a Ni-CaO-Ca12Al14O33 bifunctional catalyst derived from hydrotalcite-like materials we demonstrate the feasibility of producing high-purity H2 (∼96%) with 0.9 mol H2 mol-1 C yield via the sorption enhanced steam reforming (SESR) of BL. The SESRBL performance in terms of H2 production maintained stable for 5 cycles but declined from the 6th cycle. XRD Raman spectroscopy elemental analysis and energy dispersive techniques were employed to rationalize the deactivation of the catalyst. It was revealed that gradual sintering and agglomeration of Ni and CaO and associated coking played important roles in catalyst deactivation and performance degradation of SESRBL while deposition of Na and K from the BL might also be responsible for the declined performance. On the other hand it was demonstrated that the SESRBL process could effectively reduce the emission of sulfur species by storing it as CaSO3. Our results highlight a promising alternative for BL treatment and H2 production thereby being beneficial for pollution control and environment governance in the context of mitigation of climate change.
Effect of Supercharging on Improving Thermal Efficiency and Modifying Combustion Characteristics in Lean-burn Direct-injection Near-zero-emission Hydrogen Engines
Oct 2021
Publication
The authors have proposed a new combustion process called the Plume Ignition Combustion Concept (PCC) in which with an optimal combination of hydrogen injection timing and controlled jet geometry the plume of the hydrogen jet is spark-ignited to accomplish combustion of a rich mixture. This combustion process markedly improves thermal efficiency by reducing cooling loss which is essential for increasing thermal efficiency in a hydrogen engine while maintaining high power. In order to improve thermal efficiency and reduce NOx formation further PCC was applied to a lean-burn regime to burn a leaner mixture globally. In this study the effect of supercharging which was applied to recover the reduced output power due to the leaner mixture on improving thermal efficiency was confirmed along with clarifying the cause.
Healthy Power: Reimagining Hospitals as Sustainable Energy Hubs
Oct 2020
Publication
Human health is a key pillar of modern conceptions of sustainability. Humanity pays a considerable price for its dependence on fossil-fueled energy systems which must be addressed for sustainable urban development. Public hospitals are focal points for communities and have an opportunity to lead the transition to renewable energy. We have reimagined the healthcare energy ecosystem with sustainable technologies to transform hospitals into networked clean energy hubs. In this concept design hydrogen is used to couple energy with other on-site medical resource demands and vanadium flow battery technology is used to engage the public with energy systems. This multi-generation system would reduce harmful emissions while providing reliable services tackling the linked issues of human and environmental health.
An Optimal Fuzzy Logic-Based Energy Management Strategy for a Fuel Cell/Battery Hybrid Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Feb 2022
Publication
With the development of high-altitude and long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) optimization of the coordinated energy dispatch of UAVs’ energy management systems has become a key target in the research of electric UAVs. Several different energy management strategies are proposed herein for improving the overall efficiency and fuel economy of fuel cell/battery hybrid electric power systems (HEPS) of UAVs. A rule-based (RB) energy management strategy is designed as a baseline for comparison with other strategies. An energy management strategy (EMS) based on fuzzy logic (FL) for HEPS is presented. Compared with classical rule-based strategies the fuzzy logic control has better robustness to power fluctuations in the UAV. However the proposed FL strategy has an inherent defect: the optimization performances will be determined by the heuristic method and the past experiences of designers to a great extent rather than a specific cost function of the algorithm itself. Thus the paper puts forward an improved fuzzy logic-based strategy that uses particle swarm optimization (PSO) to track the optimal thresholds of membership functions and the equivalent hydrogen consumption minimization is considered as the objective function. Using a typical 30 min UAV mission profile all the proposed EMS were verified by simulations and rapid controller prototype (RCP) experiments. Comprehensive comparisons and analysis are presented by evaluating hydrogen consumption system efficiency and voltage bus stability. The results show that the PSO-FL algorithm can further improve fuel economy and achieve superior overall dynamic performance when controlling a UAV’s fuel-cell powertrain.
Critical Materials for Water Electrolysers at the Example of the Energy Transition in Germany
Feb 2021
Publication
The present work aims to identify critical materials in water electrolysers with potential future supply constraints. The expected rise in demand for green hydrogen as well as the respective implications on material availability are assessed by conducting a case study for Germany. Furthermore the recycling of end‐of‐life (EoL) electrolysers is evaluated concerning its potential in ensuring the sustainable supply of the considered materials. As critical materials bear the risk of raising production costs of electrolysers substantially this article examines the readiness of this technology for industrialisation from a material perspective. Except for titanium the indicators for each assessed material are scored with a moderate to high (platinum) or mostly high (iridium scandium and yttrium) supply risk. Hence the availability of these materials bears the risk of hampering the scale‐up of electrolysis capacity. Although conventional recycling pathways for platinum iridium and titanium already exist secondary material from EoL electrolysers will not reduce the dependence on primary resources significantly within the period under consideration—from 2020 until 2050. Notably the materials identified as critical are used in PEM and high temperature electrolysis whereas materials in alkaline electrolysis are not exposed to significant supply risks.
Assessment of an Innovative Way to Store Hydrogen in Vehicles
May 2019
Publication
The use of hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels for vehicle propulsion is already a reality. However due to its physical characteristics storage is still a challenge. There is an innovative way presented in this study to store hydrogen in conventional vehicles propelled by spark-ignition reciprocating engines and fuel cells using hydrogen as fuel; the storage of hydrogen will be at high pressure within small spheres randomly packed in a tank like the conventional tank of fuel used nowadays in current vehicles. Therefore the main purpose of the present study is to assess the performance of this storage system and compare it to others already applied by car manufacturers in their cars. In order to evaluate the performance of this storage system some parameters were taken into account: The energy stored by volume and stored by weight hydrogen leakage and compliance with current standards. This system is safer than conventional storage systems since hydrogen is stored inside small spheres containing small amounts of hydrogen. Besides its gravimetric energy density (GED) is threefold and the volumetric energy density (VED) is about half when compared with homologous values for conventional systems and both exceed the targets set by the U.S. Department of Energy. Regarding the leakage of hydrogen it complies with the European Standards provided a suitable choice of materials and dimensions is made.
Mobility from Renewable Electricity: Infrastructure Comparison for Battery and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
May 2018
Publication
This work presents a detailed breakdown of the energy conversion chains from intermittent electricity to a vehicle considering battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). The traditional well-to-wheel analysis is adapted to a grid to mobility approach by introducing the intermediate steps of useful electricity energy carrier and on-board storage. Specific attention is given to an effective coupling with renewable electricity sources and associated storage needs. Actual market data show that compared to FCEVs BEVs and their infrastructure are twice as efficient in the conversion of renewable electricity to a mobility service. A much larger difference between BEVs and FCEVs is usually reported in the literature. Focusing on recharging events this work additionally shows that the infrastructure efficiencies of both electric vehicle (EV) types are very close with 57% from grid to on-board storage for hydrogen refilling stations and 66% for fast chargers coupled with battery storage. The transfer from the energy carrier at the station to on-board storage in the vehicle accounts for 9% and 12% of the total energy losses of these two modes respectively. Slow charging modes can achieve a charging infrastructure efficiency of 78% with residential energy storage systems coupled with AC chargers.
Hydrogen—An Alternative Fuel for Automotive Diesel Engines Used in Transportation
Nov 2020
Publication
Considering the current environmental restrictions particularly those imposed on fossil fuel exploitation hydrogen stands out as a very promising alternative for the power and transportation sectors. This paper investigates the effects of the employment of hydrogen in a K9K automotive diesel engine. Experiments were conducted at a speed of 2000 min−1 with various engine load levels of 40% 55% 70% and 85%; several quantities were monitored to evaluate the performance with hydrogen use in terms of brake-specific energetic consumption (BSEC) fuel economy maximum pressure and heat-release characteristics. It was found that at 55% engine load the engine efficiency increased by 5.3% with hydrogen addition achieving a diesel fuel economy of 1.32 kg/h. The rate of increase of the peak pressure and maximum pressure started to increase as a consequence of the higher fuel quantity that burned in the premixed combustion phase while still remaining within reliable operational limits. The accelerated combustion and augmented heat release rate resulted in a combustion duration that was reduced by 3◦ CA (crank angle degree) achieving a mass fraction burned percentage of 10% to 90% earlier in the cycle and the combustion variability was also influenced. Hydrogen use assured the decrease of CO2 HC NOx and smoke emission levels in comparison with classic fueling.
Measurement Challenges for Hydrogen Vehicles
Apr 2019
Publication
Uptake of hydrogen vehicles is an ideal solution for countries that face challenging targets for carbon dioxide reduction. The advantage of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles is that they behave in a very similar way to petrol engines yet they do not emit any carbon containing products during operation. The hydrogen industry currently faces the dilemma that they must meet certain measurement requirements (set by European legislation) but cannot do so due to a lack of available methods and standards. This paper outlines the four biggest measurement challenges that are faced by the hydrogen industry including flow metering quality assurance quality control and sampling.
A Comparison of Alternative Fuels for Shipping in Terms of Lifecycle Energy and Cost
Dec 2021
Publication
Decarbonization of the shipping sector is inevitable and can be made by transitioning into low‐ or zero‐carbon marine fuels. This paper reviews 22 potential pathways including conventional Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) marine fuel as a reference case “blue” alternative fuel produced from natural gas and “green” fuels produced from biomass and solar energy. Carbon capture technology (CCS) is installed for fossil fuels (HFO and liquefied natural gas (LNG)). The pathways are compared in terms of quantifiable parameters including (i) fuel mass (ii) fuel volume (iii) life cycle (Well‐To‐ Wake—WTW) energy intensity (iv) WTW cost (v) WTW greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and (vi) non‐GHG emissions estimated from the literature and ASPEN HYSYS modelling. From an energy perspective renewable electricity with battery technology is the most efficient route albeit still impractical for long‐distance shipping due to the low energy density of today’s batteries. The next best is fossil fuels with CCS (assuming 90% removal efficiency) which also happens to be the lowest cost solution although the long‐term storage and utilization of CO2 are still unresolved. Biofuels offer a good compromise in terms of cost availability and technology readiness level (TRL); however the non‐GHG emissions are not eliminated. Hydrogen and ammonia are among the worst in terms of overall energy and cost needed and may also need NOx clean‐up measures. Methanol from LNG needs CCS for decarbonization while methanol from biomass does not and also seems to be a good candidate in terms of energy financial cost and TRL. The present analysis consistently compares the various options and is useful for stakeholders involved in shipping decarbonization.
Development of NaBH4-Based Hydrogen Generator for Fuel Cell Unmanned Aerial Vehicles with Movable Fuel Cartridge
Mar 2019
Publication
NaBH4-based hydrogen generator for fuel cell Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs) with movable fuel cartridge was developed in the present study. The main fuel of hydrogen generator is Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) that is a kind of chemical hydride and has a high hydrogen storage density. In the previous studies hydrogen generators were developed in which hydrogen was directly generated from solid state NaBH4. However it was a prototype so inconvenient to replace the fuel after used up and lacked user convenience. Therefore the performance evaluation and the development procedure of NaBH4-based hydrogen generator that was designed taking user convenience in consideration for commercialization were described in this paper.
Inhibition of Hydrogen-yielding Dark Fermentation by Ascomycetous Yeasts
May 2018
Publication
Hydrogen-yielding fermentation conducted in bioreactors is an alternative method of hydrogen production. However unfavourable processes can seriously inhibit bio-hydrogen generation during the acidogenic step of anaerobic digestion. Here ascomycetous yeasts were identified as a major factor inhibiting the production of bio-hydrogen by fermentation. Changes in the performance of hydrogen-producing bioreactors including metabolic shift quantitative changes in the fermentation products decreased pH instability of the microbial community and consequently a dramatic drop in bio-hydrogen yield were observed following yeast infection. Ascomycetous yeasts from the genera Candida Kazachstania and Geotrichum were isolated from hydrogen-producing bioreactors. Yeast metabolites secreted into the growth medium showed antibacterial activity. Our studies indicate that yeast infection of hydrogen-producing microbial communities is one of the serious obstacles to use dark fermentation as an alternative method of bio-hydrogen production. It also explains why studies on hydrogen fermentation are still limited to the laboratory or pilot-scale systems.
Functional Model of Power Grid Stabilization in the Green Hydrogen Supply Chain System—Conceptual Assumptions
Dec 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen supply chain includes supply sources production and distribution of hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources (RES). It is a promising scientific and application area as it is related to the problem of instability of power grids supplied with RES. The article presents the conceptual assumptions of the research on the design of a functional multi-criteria model of the stabilization model architecture of energy distribution networks based on a hydrogen energy buffer taking into account the applicable use of hydrogen. The aim of the research was to identify the variables contributing to the stabilization of the operation of distribution networks. The method used to obtain this result was a systematic review of the literature using the technique of in-depth analysis of full-text articles and expert consultations. The concept of a functional model was described as a matrix in two dimensions in which the identified variables were embedded. The first dimension covers the phases of the supply chain: procurement and production along with storage and distribution. The second dimension divides the separate factors into technical economic and logistic. The research was conducted in the context of system optimization from the point of view of the operator of the energy distribution system. As a result of the research several benefits resulting from stabilization using a hydrogen buffer were identified. Furthermore the model may be used in designing solutions stabilizing the operation of power grids in which there are surpluses of electricity produced from RES. Due to the applied multidimensional approach the developed model is recommended for use as it enables the design of solutions in a systemic manner. Due to the growing level of energy obtained from renewable energy sources the issue of stabilizing the energy network is becoming increasingly important for energy network distributors.
Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies: Inventory of Work Performed by Projects Funded Under FCH JU
Apr 2020
Publication
This report is the public version of the deliverable B.3.7 'Life cycle assessment of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies - Inventory of work performed by projects funded under FCH JU'; it provides an overview of the progress achieved so far and a comprehensive analysis on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for various hydrogen technologies and processes. The review considers 73 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertaking (FCH 2 JU) founded projects: for some of those the LCA study was requested in the call topic while other projects decided to perform the LCA study on a voluntary basis. The LCAs have been assessed regarding the adherence to guideline recommendations (e.g. reported properties system boundary definitions goal and scope definitions) methodology and overall quality of the work. Methodology is a critical issue for the comparability of results as this is only possible if all LCAs follow the same guidelines; in addition LCAs were often only partially fulfilling the selected guideline requirements. It is recommended that future FCH 2 JU call topics asking for environmental analysis to be performed are setting out some minimum requirements such as the guidelines to be used and the impacts to be assessed. Based on the outcome of this analysis a harmonisation effort in the approach to LCA for the FCH JU founded projects is proposed; in particular a Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database useful for the projects is required togheter with the identification of a reference cases to be used as benchmark for future LCAs.
Innovation Insights Brief 2019: New Hydrogen Economy - Hope or Hype?
Jun 2019
Publication
Hydrogen and fuel cell technologies have experienced cycles of high expectations followed by impractical realities. This time around however falling renewable energy and fuel cell prices stringent climate change requirements and the discrete involvement of China are step changes. The combination of these factors is leading to realistic potential for hydrogen’s role in the Grand Transition.<br/>Having conducted exploratory interviews with leaders from all around the globe the World Energy Council is featuring eight use cases which illustrate hydrogen’s potential. These range from decarbonising hard-to-abate sectors such as heat industry and transport to supporting the integration of renewables and providing an energy storage solution.<br/>Dr Angela Wilkinson Secretary General and former Senior Director Scenarios and Business Insights: “Green and blue hydrogen can refresh those parts of the energy system transition that electrification cannot reach.”<br/>This Innovation Insights Brief is part of a series of publications by the World Energy Council focused on Innovation. In a fast-paced era of disruptive changes this brief aims at facilitating strategic sharing of knowledge between the Council’s members and the other energy stakeholders and policy shapers.
Innovation Insights Brief: Energy Scenarios Comparison Review
Apr 2019
Publication
Energy transition is a part of a much wider Grand Transition which is not all about energy. Energy transition cannot be achieved all at once or by any one actor. Relying only on better energy modelling and forecasting to guide successful transition will be fatal even in a data-rich era.<br/>It is timely for energy leaders to ask:<br/>Are global energy scenarios achieving their potential in opening up action on new energy futures?<br/>How do the Council’s World Energy Scenarios compare with global energy outlooks scenarios and normative visions used by others and what can we learn by contrasting the increasing richness of energy futures thinking?<br/>In anticipation of the 24th World Energy Congress the Council is refreshing its global energy foresight and updating its global scenarios narratives. The focus is on an ‘innovation twist to 2040’ and the use of scenarios to explore and navigate new exponential growth opportunities for accelerating successful energy transition in an era of epic and disruptive innovation.<br/>As a part of the refresh the Council has conducted a comparison study of global energy scenarios in order to test the continued plausibility relevance and challenge of its own existing scenario set the World Energy Scenarios 2016 launched at the 23rd World Energy Congress in Istanbul in 2016.<br/>By comparing the methods narratives and assumptions associated with a benchmarkable set of global energy futures initiatives and studies the Council seeks to provide our members with clearer understanding and new insights on energy transition while preparing them to better engage with leadership dialogues which pivot on visions of a new energy future.<br/>The review also provides an opportunity to reflect on the challenges and obstacles for utilising global energy scenarios to drive impact and the challenges in bridging agile and flexible qualitative storytelling with long term quantitative energy modelling."
Environmental Sustainability of Alternative Marine Propulsion Technologies Powered by Hydrogen - A Life Cycle Assessment Approach
Jan 2022
Publication
Shipping is a very important source of pollution worldwide. In recent years numerous actions and measures have been developed trying to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases (GHG) from the marine exhaust emissions in the fight against climate change boosting the Sustainable Development Goal 13. Following this target the action of hydrogen as energy vector makes it a suitable alternative to be used as fuel constituting a very promising energy carrier for energy transition and decarbonization in maritime transport. The objective of this study is to develop an ex-ante environmental evaluation of two promising technologies for vessels propulsion a H2 Polymeric Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and a H2 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) in order to determine their viability and eligibility compared to the traditional one a diesel ICE. The applied methodology follows the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) guidelines considering a functional unit of 1 kWh of energy produced. LCA results reveal that both alternatives have great potential to promote the energy transition particularly the H2 ICE. However as technologies readiness level is quite low it was concluded that the assessment has been conducted at a very early stage so their sustainability and environmental performance may change as they become more widely developed and deployed which can be only achieved with political and stakeholder’s involvement and collaboration.
Optimal Development of Alternative Fuel Station Networks Considering Node Capacity Restrictions
Jan 2020
Publication
A potential solution to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport sector is the use of alternative fuel vehicles (AFV). As global GHG emission standards have been in place for passenger cars for several years infrastructure modelling for new AFV is an established topic. However as the regulatory focus shifts towards heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) the market diffusion of AFV-HDV will increase as will planning the relevant AFV infrastructure for HDV. Existing modelling approaches need to be adapted because the energy demand per individual refill increases significantly for HDV and there are regulatory as well as technical limitations for alternative fuel station (AFS) capacities at the same time. While the current research takes capacity restrictions for single stations into account capacity limits for locations (i.e. nodes) – the places where refuelling stations are built such as highway entries exits or intersections – are not yet considered. We extend existing models in this respect and introduce an optimal development for AFS considering (station) location capacity restrictions. The proposed method is applied to a case study of a potential fuel cell heavy-duty vehicle AFS network. We find that the location capacity limit has a major impact on the number of stations required station utilization and station portfolio variety.
Hydrogen Ironmaking: How It Works
Jul 2020
Publication
A new route for making steel from iron ore based on the use of hydrogen to reduce iron oxides is presented detailed and analyzed. The main advantage of this steelmaking route is the dramatic reduction (90% off) in CO2 emissions compared to those of the current standard blast-furnace route. The first process of the route is the production of hydrogen by water electrolysis using CO2-lean electricity. The challenge is to achieve massive production of H2 in acceptable economic conditions. The second process is the direct reduction of iron ore in a shaft furnace operated with hydrogen only. The third process is the melting of the carbon-free direct reduced iron in an electric arc furnace to produce steel. From mathematical modeling of the direct reduction furnace we show that complete metallization can be achieved in a reactor smaller than the current shaft furnaces that use syngas made from natural gas. The reduction processes at the scale of the ore pellets are described and modeled using a specific structural kinetic pellet model. Finally the differences between the reduction by hydrogen and by carbon monoxide are discussed from the grain scale to the reactor scale. Regarding the kinetics reduction with hydrogen is definitely faster. Several research and development and innovation projects have very recently been launched that should confirm the viability and performance of this breakthrough and environmentally friendly ironmaking process.
Decarbonization of the Iron and Steel Industry with Direct Reduction of Iron Ore with Green Hydrogen
Feb 2020
Publication
Production of iron and steel releases seven percent of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Incremental changes in present primary steel production technologies would not be sufficient to meet the emission reduction targets. Replacing coke used in the blast furnaces as a reducing agent with hydrogen produced from water electrolysis has the potential to reduce emissions from iron and steel production substantially. Mass and energy flow model based on an open-source software (Python) has been developed in this work to explore the feasibility of using hydrogen direct reduction of iron ore (HDRI) coupled with electric arc furnace (EAF) for carbon-free steel production. Modeling results show that HDRI-EAF technology could reduce specific emissions from steel production in the EU by more than 35% at present grid emission levels (295 kgCO2/MWh). The energy consumption for 1 ton of liquid steel (tls) production through the HDRI-EAF route was found to be 3.72 MWh which is slightly more than the 3.48 MWh required for steel production through the blast furnace (BF) basic oxygen furnace route (BOF). Pellet making and steel finishing processes have not been considered. Sensitivity analysis revealed that electrolyzer efficiency is the most important factor affecting the system energy consumption while the grid emission factor is strongly correlated with the overall system emissions.
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