Applications & Pathways

Hydrogen (H2 ) can be a promising energy carrier for decarbonizing the economy and especially the transport sector which is considered as one of the sectors with high carbon emissions due to the extensive use of fossil fuels. H2 is a nontoxic energy carrier that could replace fossil fuels. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) can decrease air pollution and reduce greenhouse gases when H2 is produced from Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and at the same time being accessible through a widespread network of Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRSs). In this study both the sizing of the equipment and financial analysis were performed for an HRS supplied with H2 from the excess electrical energy of a 10 MW wind park. The aim was to determine the optimum configuration of an HRS under the investigation of six different scenarios with various numbers of FCEVs and monthly demands as well as ascertaining the economic viability of each examined scenario. The effect of the number of vehicles that the installation can refuel to balance the initial cost of the investment and the fuel cost in remote regions was investigated. The results showed that a wind-powered HRS could be a viable solution when sized appropriately and H2 can be used as a storage mean for the rejected wind energy. It was concluded that scenarios with low FCEVs penetration have low economic performance since the payback period presented significantly high values.

NaBH4-based hydrogen generator for fuel cell Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs) with movable fuel cartridge was developed in the present study. The main fuel of hydrogen generator is Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) that is a kind of chemical hydride and has a high hydrogen storage density. In the previous studies hydrogen generators were developed in which hydrogen was directly generated from solid state NaBH4. However it was a prototype so inconvenient to replace the fuel after used up and lacked user convenience. Therefore the performance evaluation and the development procedure of NaBH4-based hydrogen generator that was designed taking user convenience in consideration for commercialization were described in this paper.

Today in order to reduce the increase of the carbon dioxide emissions a large number of renewable energy resources (RES) are already implemented. Considering both the intermittency and uncertainty of the RES the energy storage system (ESS) is still needed for balancing and stabilizing the power system. Among different existing categories of ESS the hydrogen storage systems (HSS) have the highest energy density and are crucial for the RES integration. In addition RES are located in faraway regions and are often transmitted to the terminal consumption center through HVDC (high voltage direct current) due to its lower power loss. In this paper we present a power supply system that achieves low-carbon emissions through combined HSS and HVDC technology. First the combined HSS and the HVDC model are established. Secondly the rule-based strategy for operating the HSS microgrid is presented. Then an operating strategy for a typical network i.e. the pure RES generation station-HVDC transmission-microgrids is demonstrated. Finally the best sizing capacities for all components are found by the genetic algorithm. The results prove the efficiency of the presented sizing approach for a pure RES electric system.

This paper revisits the theoretical concepts of lock-in mechanisms to analyse transition processes in energy production and road transportation in the Nordic countries focussing on three technology platforms: advanced biofuels e-mobility and hydrogen and fuel cell electrical vehicles. The paper is based on a comparative analysis of case studies.<br/>The main lock-in mechanisms analysed are learning effects economies of scale economies of scope network externalities informational increasing returns technological interrelatedness collective action institutional learning effects and the differentiation of power.<br/>We show that very different path dependencies have been reinforced by the lock-in mechanisms. Hence the characteristics of existing regimes set the preconditions for the development of new transition pathways. The incumbent socio-technical regime is not just fossil-based but may also include mature niches specialised in the exploitation of renewable sources. This implies a need to distinguish between lock-in mechanisms favouring the old fossil-based regime well-established (mature) renewable energy niches or new pathways.

As a developing country the Philippines must balance its rapid industrialization efforts with the realities and consequences of climate change on the country. A feasible option to achieve this is increasing the share of renewables in power generation coupled with energy storage technology. This paper examines the present situation and opportunities for development of hydrogen and fuel cell technology in the Philippines as promising alternatives with proven applications in niche energy demand sectors aside from renewables integration. Although the Philippines is considered a latecomer there is significant renewable resource potential available local experts and trained talents and enabling legislations in the country that provide opportunities in harnessing fuel cell technologies for the transition to energy self-sufficient and low-carbon society. Current advancement of the technology in the country is limited to an initial 5-year roadmap focused on component development from cheap and local materials. Provisions for large-scale hydrogen infrastructure have not yet been realized which is comparable to the early stages of development in other countries that are also pursuing fuel cell technology. Strong industry-academe partnerships should be pursued through a specific legislated agency to ensure future development of this technology for the country’s benefit. Lastly applications in distributed power generation poised to be a lucrative direction as demonstration and validation with other potential uses such as transportation remains a challenge.

Numerous studies have shown that a full electrification of passenger cars is needed to stay within the 1.5° C temperature rise. This article deals with the question of how the required shares of alternative vehicles can be achieved by the year 2050. In literature the preferred technology are battery electric vehicles as these are more energy efficient than hydrogen vehicles. To be able to demonstrate how alternative vehicles diffuse into the German market the passenger car investment behavior of private persons was investigated. For this purpose a discrete choice experiment (DCE) with 1921 participants was carried out empirically. The results of the DCE show that the investment costs in particular are important when choosing a vehicle. This is followed by the driving range fuel costs and vehicle type. Less important are the charging infrastructure and CO₂ emissions of the vehicle. A CO₂ tax is of least importance. The utility values of the DCE were used to simulate future market shares. For this purpose the open-source software Invest was developed and different scenarios were defined and calculated. This paper shows that conservative assumptions on attribute development leave a large gap until full electrification as conventional vehicles still account for around 62% of market shares in 2050. In order to achieve full electrification extreme efforts must be made targeting the technical and economic characteristics of the vehicles but also addressing person-related characteristics such as level of information the subjective norm or the technological risk attitude. A ban on new registrations of combustion engines from 2030 could also lead to a full electrification by 2050. An average annual increase in the market share of alternative vehicles of 2.4 percentage points is needed to achieve full electrification. Other important factors are measures that address the modal shift to other modes of transport (rail public transport car-sharing).

Coal and carbon-containing waste are valuable primary and secondary carbon carriers. In the current dominant linear economy such carbon resources are generally combusted to produce electricity and heat and as a way to resolve a nation’s waste issue. Not only is this a wastage of precious carbon resources which can be chemically utilized as raw materials for production of other value-added goods it is also contrary to international efforts to reduce carbon emissions and increase resource efficiency and conservation. This article presents a concept to support the transformation from a linear ‘one-way cradle to grave manufacturing model’ toward a circular carbon economy. The development of new and sustainable value chains through the utilization of coal and waste as alternative raw materials for the chemical industry via a coupling of the energy chemical and waste management sectors offers a viable and future-oriented perspective for closing the carbon cycle. Further benefits also include a lowering of the carbon footprint and increasing resource efficiency and conservation of primary carbon resources. In addition technological innovations and developments that are necessary to support a successful sector coupling will be identified. To illustrate our concept a case analysis of domestic coal and waste as alternative feedstock to imported crude oil for chemical production in Germany will be presented. Last but not least challenges posed by path dependency along technological institutional and human dimensions in the sociotechnical system for a successful transition toward a circular carbon economy will be discussed.

The paper applies the multi-level perspective (MLP) in a descriptive study of three Norwegian ports to shed new light on the sociotechnical processes that structure their efforts to develop into zero emission energy hubs. While exogenous pressures cause tensions over port governance the studied ports utilize their full spectre of functions; as landlords operators authorities and community managers to enable transition. The respective approaches vary related to their local context market situation and social networks including port's relations with their owners. Individual orientations and organizational capacity further influence their engagement with radical innovation niches (e.g. OPS hydrogen LNG). The study highlights the active role of ports in sustainability transition. It shows how the interaction between geographical factors and institutional work influences the scope for new solutions around the individual port and how this makes for different feedback loops and contributions to sustainability transition in wider transport and energy systems.

We report the development of new tools and methods for facile integration and meaningful representation of high throughput data generated by genome-wide analyses of the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803 for future genetic engineering aiming at increasing its level of hydrogen photoproduction. These robust tools comprise new oligonucleotide DNA microarrays to monitor the transcriptomic responses of all 3725 genes of Synechocystis and the SVGMapping method and custom-made templates to represent the metabolic reprogramming for improved hydrogen production. We show for the first time that the AbrB2 repressor of the hydrogenase-encoding operon also regulates metal transport and protection against oxidative stress as well as numerous plasmid genes which have been overlooked so far. This report will stimulate the construction and global analysis of hydrogen production mutants with the prospect of developing powerful cell factories for the sustainable production of hydrogen as well as investigations of the probable role of plasmids in this process.

The key project objectives include:

• Understand the range size type mode of operation and control system of installed gas engines in the UK. This will include equipment for CHP and for stand-by power operation.
• Produce data sets on the impact of hydrogen on gas engine operational performance.
• Develop knowledge on the impact of hydrogen content on the operation of the gas engine including overall efficiency changes to emissions profiles overall system operability.
• Providing outline guidance on a potential hydrogen limit that should be considered regarding use of natural gas/hydrogen mixed fuels in gas engines.
• Outlining a high-level view on the reliability and impact on maintenance and replacement regimes if gas engines operate on natural gas/hydrogen mixed fuels for extended time periods.
• Highlight any existing barriers to use of natural gas and hydrogen blends in gas engine and through contact with OEMs develop an understanding of future technology developments that may be needed to enable the use of “high” hydrogen blends.

The main aim is to characterise the impact of using natural gas/hydrogen fuel mixtures on the operation of gas engines used in CHP systems.

The output from this project will also inform the HyDeploy NIC project in relation to potential hydrogen content limits. The project will be presented at the IGEM Gas Quality Working Group (IGEM GQWG).

This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.

There has recently been a concerted effort to commence a transition to fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) in Europe. A coalition of companies released an influential McKinsey-coordinated report in 2010 which concluded that FCVs are ready for commercial deployment. Public–private H2Mobility programmes have subsequently been established across Europe to develop business cases for the introduction of FCVs. In this paper we examine the conclusions of these studies from an energy systems perspective using the UK as a case study. Other UK energy system studies have identified only a minor role for FCVs after 2030 but we reconcile these views by showing that the differences are primarily driven by different data assumptions rather than methodological differences. Some energy system models do not start a transition to FCVs until around 2040 as they do not account for the time normally taken for the diffusion of new powertrains. We show that applying dynamic growth constraints to the UK MARKAL energy system model more realistically represents insights from innovation theory. We conclude that the optimum deployment of FCVs from an energy systems perspective is broadly in line with the roadmap developed by UK H2Mobility and that a transition needs to commence soon if FCVs are to become widespread by 2050.

Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) are a disruptive innovation and are currently looking towards niche market entry. However commercialisation has been unsuccessful thus far and there is a limited amount of literature that can guide their market entry. In this paper a historical case study is undertaken which looks at Tesla Motors high-end encroachment market entry strategy. FCVs have been compared to Tesla vehicles due to their similarities; both are disruptive innovations both are high cost and both are zero emission vehicles. Therefore this paper looks at what can be learned form Tesla Motors successful market entry strategy and proposes a market entry strategy for FCVs. It was found that FCVs need to enact a paradigm shift from their current market entry strategy to one of high-end encroachment. When this has been achieved FCVs will have greater potential for market penetration.

In the past material innovation has changed society through new material-induced technologies adding a new value to society. In the present world engineers and scientists are expected to invent new materials to solve the global problem of climate change. For the transport sector the challenge for material engineers is to change the oil-based world into a sustainable world. After witnessing the recent high oil price and its adverse impact on the global economy it is time to accelerate our efforts towards this change.

Industries are tackling global energy issues such as oil and CO₂ as well as local environmental problems such as NOx and particulate matter. Hydrogen is the most promising candidate to provide carbon-free emission-free and oil-free mobility. As such engineers are working very hard to bring this technology into the real society. This paper describes recent progress of vehicle technologies as well as hydrogen-storage technologies to extend the cruise range and ensure the easiness of refuelling and requesting material scientists to collaborate with industry to fight against global warming.

Link to document download on Royal Society Website  

The energy transition – which represents the efforts undertaken and results achieved on renewable energy expansion and energy efficiency – is our basis for a clean secure and affordable energy supply which is essential for all our lives. By adopting the 2030 Climate Action Plan the Federal Government has paved the way for meeting its climate targets for 2030. Its long-term goal is to achieve carbon neutrality in line with the targets agreed under the Paris Agreement which seeks to keep global warming well below 2 degrees and if possible below 1.5 degrees. In addition Germany has committed itself together with the other European Member States to achieving greenhouse gas (GHG) neutrality by 2050. Apart from phasing out coal-fired power for which Germany has already taken the relevant decisions this means preventing emissions which are particularly hard to reduce such as process-related GHG emissions from the industrial sector.<br/>In order for the energy transition to be successful security of supply affordability and environmental compatibility need to be combined with innovative and smart climate action. This means that the fossil fuels we are currently using need to be replaced by alternative options. This applies in particular to gaseous and liquid energy sources which will continue to be an integral part of Germany’s energy supply. Against this backdrop hydrogen will play a key role in enhancing and completing the energy transition.

Shipping is a very important source of pollution worldwide. In recent years numerous actions and measures have been developed trying to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases (GHG) from the marine exhaust emissions in the fight against climate change boosting the Sustainable Development Goal 13. Following this target the action of hydrogen as energy vector makes it a suitable alternative to be used as fuel constituting a very promising energy carrier for energy transition and decarbonization in maritime transport. The objective of this study is to develop an ex-ante environmental evaluation of two promising technologies for vessels propulsion a H2 Polymeric Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and a H2 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) in order to determine their viability and eligibility compared to the traditional one a diesel ICE. The applied methodology follows the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) guidelines considering a functional unit of 1 kWh of energy produced. LCA results reveal that both alternatives have great potential to promote the energy transition particularly the H2 ICE. However as technologies readiness level is quite low it was concluded that the assessment has been conducted at a very early stage so their sustainability and environmental performance may change as they become more widely developed and deployed which can be only achieved with political and stakeholder’s involvement and collaboration.

Decarbonization of the shipping sector is inevitable and can be made by transitioning into low‐ or zero‐carbon marine fuels. This paper reviews 22 potential pathways including conventional Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) marine fuel as a reference case “blue” alternative fuel produced from natural gas and “green” fuels produced from biomass and solar energy. Carbon capture technology (CCS) is installed for fossil fuels (HFO and liquefied natural gas (LNG)). The pathways are compared in terms of quantifiable parameters including (i) fuel mass (ii) fuel volume (iii) life cycle (Well‐To‐ Wake—WTW) energy intensity (iv) WTW cost (v) WTW greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and (vi) non‐GHG emissions estimated from the literature and ASPEN HYSYS modelling. From an energy perspective renewable electricity with battery technology is the most efficient route albeit still impractical for long‐distance shipping due to the low energy density of today’s batteries. The next best is fossil fuels with CCS (assuming 90% removal efficiency) which also happens to be the lowest cost solution although the long‐term storage and utilization of CO2 are still unresolved. Biofuels offer a good compromise in terms of cost availability and technology readiness level (TRL); however the non‐GHG emissions are not eliminated. Hydrogen and ammonia are among the worst in terms of overall energy and cost needed and may also need NOx clean‐up measures. Methanol from LNG needs CCS for decarbonization while methanol from biomass does not and also seems to be a good candidate in terms of energy financial cost and TRL. The present analysis consistently compares the various options and is useful for stakeholders involved in shipping decarbonization.

A new route for making steel from iron ore based on the use of hydrogen to reduce iron oxides is presented detailed and analyzed. The main advantage of this steelmaking route is the dramatic reduction (90% off) in CO2 emissions compared to those of the current standard blast-furnace route. The first process of the route is the production of hydrogen by water electrolysis using CO2-lean electricity. The challenge is to achieve massive production of H2 in acceptable economic conditions. The second process is the direct reduction of iron ore in a shaft furnace operated with hydrogen only. The third process is the melting of the carbon-free direct reduced iron in an electric arc furnace to produce steel. From mathematical modeling of the direct reduction furnace we show that complete metallization can be achieved in a reactor smaller than the current shaft furnaces that use syngas made from natural gas. The reduction processes at the scale of the ore pellets are described and modeled using a specific structural kinetic pellet model. Finally the differences between the reduction by hydrogen and by carbon monoxide are discussed from the grain scale to the reactor scale. Regarding the kinetics reduction with hydrogen is definitely faster. Several research and development and innovation projects have very recently been launched that should confirm the viability and performance of this breakthrough and environmentally friendly ironmaking process.

In 2016 for the first time a polymer electrolyte fuel cell free of Pt electrocatalysts was shown to deliver more than 0.5 W cm-2 of peak power density from H2 and air (CO2 free). This was achieved with a silver-based oxygen reduction (ORR) cathode and a Pd-CeO2 hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) anodic electrocatalyst. The poor kinetics of the HOR under alkaline conditions is a considerable challenge to Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (AEMFC) development as high Pt loadings are still required to achieve reasonable performance. Previously the ameliorative combination of Pd and CeO2 nanocomposites has been exploited mostly in heterogeneous catalysis where the positive interaction is well documented. Carbon supported PdCeO2 HOR catalysts have now been prepared by different synthetic techniques and employed in AEMFCs as alternative to Pt and PtRu standards. Important research has also been recently reported delving into the origin of the HOR enhancement on Pd-CeO2. Such work has highlighted the importance of the bifunctional mechanism of the HOR at high pHs. Carefully prepared nano-structures of Pd and CeO2 that promote the formation of the Pd-O-Ce interface provide optimal binding of both Had and OHad species aspects which are crucial for enhanced HOR kinetics. This review paper discusses the recent advances in Pd-CeO2 electrocatalysts for AEMFC anodes.

(Mg-10wt.%Ni)-10wt.%Ce (Mg10Ni10Ce) was ball-milled with SnO2 nanotubes and Mg10Ni10Ce-xSnO2 (x=0 5 10 and 15wt.%) composites have been prepared. The phase compositions microstructures morphologies and hydrolysis H2 generation performance in different aqueous systems (distilled water tap water and simulated seawater) have been investigated and the corresponding hydrolysis mechanism of Mg10Ni10Ce and Mg10Ni10Ce-SnO2 has been proposed. Adding a small amount of SnO2 nanotubes can significantly enhance the hydrolysis reaction of Mg10Ni10Ce especially the initial hydrolysis kinetics and the final H2 generation yield. Unfortunately the Mg10Ni10Ce-xSnO2 hardly react with distilled water at room temperature. The hydrolysis reaction rate of Mg10Ni10Ce-5SnO2 composite in tap water is still very slow with only 17.3% generation yield after 1 hour at 303 K. Fortunately in simulated seawater (3.5wt.% NaCl solution) the hydrolytic H2 generation behavior of the Mg10Ni10Ce-5SnO2 composite has been greatly improved which can release as high as 468.6 mL/g H2 with about 60.9% generation yield within 30 s at 303 K. The Cl- destroys the passivation layer on Mg-Ni-Ce alloy surface and the added SnO2 nanotubes accelerate the hydrolysis reaction rate and enhance the H2 generation yield. The Mg10Ni10Ce-5SnO2 composite can rapidly generate a large amount of H2 in simulate seawater in a short time which is expected to be applied on portable H2 generators in the future.

Climate change and global warming pose great sustainability challenges to the aviation industry. Alternatives to petroleum-based fuels (hydrogen natural gas etc.) have emerged as promising aviation fuels for future aircraft. The present study aimed to contribute to the understanding of the impact of material selection on aviation sustainability accounting for the type of fuel implemented and circular economy aspects. In this context a decision support tool was introduced to aid decisionmakers and relevant stakeholders to identify and select the best-performing materials that meet their defined needs and preferences expressed through a finite set of conflicting criteria associated with ecological economic and circularity aspects. The proposed tool integrates life-cycle-based metrics extending to both ecological and economical dimensions and a proposed circular economy indicator (CEI) focused on the material/component level and linked to its quality characteristics which also accounts for the quality degradation of materials which have undergone one or more recycling loops. The tool is coupled with a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methodology in order to reduce subjectivity when determining the importance of each of the considered criteria.

Developing low-cost high-performance catalysts is of fundamental significance for electrochemical energy conversion and storage. In recent years metal@carbon core@shell nanocomposites have emerged as a unique class of functional nanomaterials that show apparent electrocatalytic activity towards a range of reactions such as hydrogen evolution reaction oxygen evolution reaction oxygen reduction reaction and CO2 reduction reaction that are important in water splitting fuel cells and metal-air batteries. The activity is primarily attributed to interfacial charge transfer from the metal core to the carbon shell that manipulate the electronic interactions between the catalyst surface and reaction intermediates and varies with the structures and morphologies of the metal core (elemental composition core size etc.) and carbon shell (doping layer thickness etc.). Further manipulation can be achieved by the incorporation of a third structural component. A perspective is also included highlighting the current gap between theoretical modeling and experimental results and technical challenges for future research.

The present paper illustrates an innovative steel processing route developed by employing hydrogen direct reduced pellets and an open slag bath furnace. The paper illustrates the direct reduction reactor employing hydrogen as reductant on an industrial scale. The solution allows for the production of steel from blast furnace pellets transformed in the direct reduction reactor. The reduced pellets are then melted in open slag bath furnaces allowing carburization for further refining. The proposed solution is clean for the decarbonization of the steel industry. The kinetic chemical and thermodynamic issues are detailed with particular attention paid to the slag conditions. The proposed solution is also supported by the economic evaluation compared to traditional routes.

Faced with key obstacles such as the short driving range long charging time and limited volume allowance of battery−−powered electric light scooters in Asian cities the aim of this study is to present a passive fuel cell/battery hybrid system without DC−−DC to ensure a compact volume and low cost. A novel topology structure of the passive fuel cell/battery power system for the electric light scooter is proposed and the passive power system runs only on hydrogen. The power performance and efficiency of the passive power system are evaluated by a self−developed test bench before installation into the scooters. The results of this study reveal that the characteristics of stable power output quick response and the average efficiency are as high as 88% during the Shanghainese urban driving cycle and 89.5% during the Chinese standard driving cycle. The results pre‐ sent the possibility that this passive fuel cell/battery hybrid powertrain system without DC−DC is practical for commercial scooters.

Green hydrogen supply chain includes supply sources production and distribution of hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources (RES). It is a promising scientific and application area as it is related to the problem of instability of power grids supplied with RES. The article presents the conceptual assumptions of the research on the design of a functional multi-criteria model of the stabilization model architecture of energy distribution networks based on a hydrogen energy buffer taking into account the applicable use of hydrogen. The aim of the research was to identify the variables contributing to the stabilization of the operation of distribution networks. The method used to obtain this result was a systematic review of the literature using the technique of in-depth analysis of full-text articles and expert consultations. The concept of a functional model was described as a matrix in two dimensions in which the identified variables were embedded. The first dimension covers the phases of the supply chain: procurement and production along with storage and distribution. The second dimension divides the separate factors into technical economic and logistic. The research was conducted in the context of system optimization from the point of view of the operator of the energy distribution system. As a result of the research several benefits resulting from stabilization using a hydrogen buffer were identified. Furthermore the model may be used in designing solutions stabilizing the operation of power grids in which there are surpluses of electricity produced from RES. Due to the applied multidimensional approach the developed model is recommended for use as it enables the design of solutions in a systemic manner. Due to the growing level of energy obtained from renewable energy sources the issue of stabilizing the energy network is becoming increasingly important for energy network distributors.

This article presents a power to SNG (synthetic natural gas) system that converts hydrogen into SNG via a methanation process. In our analysis detailed models for all the elements of the system are built. We assume a direct connection between a wind farm and a hydrogen generator. For the purposes of our calculations we also assume that the hydrogen generator is powered by the renewable source over a nine-hour period per day (between 21:00 and 06:00) and this corresponds to the off-peak period in energy demand. In addition a hydrogen tank was introduced to maximize the operating time of the methanation reactor. The cooperation between the main components of the system were simulated using Matlab software. The primary aim of this paper is to assess the influence of various parameters on the operation of the proposed system and to optimize its yearly operation via a consideration of the most important constraints. The analyses also examine different nominal power values of renewables from 8 to 12 MW and hydrogen generators from 3 to 6 MW. Implementing the proposed configuration taking into account the direct connection of the hydrogen generator and the methanation reactor showed that it had a positive effect on the dynamics and the operating times of the individual subsystems within the tested configuration

Uptake of hydrogen vehicles is an ideal solution for countries that face challenging targets for carbon dioxide reduction. The advantage of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles is that they behave in a very similar way to petrol engines yet they do not emit any carbon containing products during operation. The hydrogen industry currently faces the dilemma that they must meet certain measurement requirements (set by European legislation) but cannot do so due to a lack of available methods and standards. This paper outlines the four biggest measurement challenges that are faced by the hydrogen industry including flow metering quality assurance quality control and sampling.

This paper presents a simple hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) energy consumption model. Simple fuel/energy consumption models have been developed and employed to estimate the energy and environmental impacts of various transportation projects for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). However there are few published results on HFCV energy models that can be simply implemented in transportation applications. The proposed HFCV energy model computes instantaneous energy consumption utilizing instantaneous vehicle speed acceleration and roadway grade as input variables. The mode accurately estimates energy consumption generating errors of 0.86% and 2.17% relative to laboratory data for the fuel cell estimation and the total energy estimation respectively. Furthermore this work validated the proposed model against independent data and found that the new model accurately estimated the energy consumption producing an error of 1.9% and 1.0% relative to empirical data for the fuel cell and the total energy estimation respectively. The results demonstrate that transportation engineers policy makers automakers and environmental engineers can use the proposed model to evaluate the energy consumption effects of transportation projects and connected and automated vehicle (CAV) transportation applications within microscopic traffic simulation models.

Hydrogen is expected to become a key component in the decarbonized energy systems of the future. Its unique chemical characteristics make hydrogen a carbon-free fuel that is suitable to be used as broadly as fossil fuels are used today. Since hydrogen can be produced by splitting water molecules using electricity as the only energy input needed hydrogen offers the opportunity to produce a fully renewable fuel if the electricity input also only stems from renewable sources. Once renewable electricity is converted into hydrogen it can be stored over long periods of time and transported over long even intercontinental distances. Underground hydrogen storage pipelines compressors liquefaction-units and transportation ships are infrastructures and suitable technologies to establish a global hydrogen energy system. Several chemical synthesis routes exist to produce more complex products from green hydrogen to fulfil the demands of various end-users and industries. One exemplary power-to-gas product is methane which can be used as a natural gas substitute. Furthermore ammonia alcohols kerosene and all other important products from hydrocarbon chemistry can be synthesized using green hydrogen.

For the UK to meet their national target of net zero emissions as part of the central Paris Agreement target further emphasis needs to be placed on decarbonizing public transport and moving away from personal transport (conventionally fuelled vehicles (CFVs) and electric vehicles (EVs)). Electric buses (EBs) and hydrogen buses (HBs) have the potential to fulfil requirements if powered from low carbon renewable energy sources.

A comparison of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions produced from conventionally fuelled buses (CFB) EBs and HBs between 2017 and 2050 under four National Grid electricity scenarios was conducted. In addition emissions per person at different vehicle capacity levels (100% 75% 50% and 25%) were projected for CFBs HBs EBs and personal transport assuming a maximum of 80 passengers per bus and four per personal vehicle.

Results indicated that CFVs produced 30 g CO₂km⁻¹ per person compared to 16.3 g CO₂ km⁻¹ per person by CFBs by 2050. At 100% capacity under the two-degree scenario CFB emissions were 36 times higher than EBs 9 times higher than HBs and 12 times higher than EVs in 2050. Cumulative emissions under all electricity scenarios remained lower for EBs and HBs.

Policy makers need to focus on encouraging a modal shift from personal transport towards sustainable public transport primarily EBs as the lowest level emitting vehicle type. Simple electrification of personal vehicles will not meet the required targets. Simultaneously CFBs need to be replaced with EBs and HBs if the UK is going to meet emission targets.

This is article presents the results of the testing of the addition of a hydrogen-to-nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group and its influence on the operation of selected gas-fired domestic appliances. The tests were performed on appliances used for the preparation of meals and hot water production for hygienic and heating purposes. The characteristics of the tested gas appliances are also presented. The burners and their controllers with which the tested appliances were equipped were adapted for the combustion of Lw natural gas. The tested appliances reflected the most popular designs for domestic gas appliances in their group used both in Poland and in other European countries. The tested appliances were supplied with nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group and a mixture of this gas with hydrogen at 13.2% content. The article presents the approximate percentage compositions of the gases used during the tests and their energy parameters. The research was focused on checking the following operating parameters and the safety of the tested appliances: the rated heat input thermal efficiency combustion quality ignition flame stability and transfer. The article contains an analysis of the test results referring in detail to the issue of decreasing the heat input of the appliances by lowering the energy parameters of the nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group mixture with a hydrogen addition and how it influenced the thermal efficiency achieved by the appliances. The conclusions contain an explanation regarding among other things how the design of an appliance influences the thermal efficiency achieved by it in relation to the heat input decrease. In the conclusions on the basis of the research results answers have been provided to the following questions: (1) Whether the hydrogen addition to the nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group will influence the safe and proper operation of domestic gas appliances; (2) What hydrogen percentage can be added to the nitrogen-rich natural gas of the Lw group in order for the appliances adapted for combusting it to operate safely and effectively without the need for modifying them?

A potentially viable solution to the problem of greenhouse gas emissions by vehicles in the transportation sector is the deployment of hydrogen as alternative fuel. A limitation to the diffusion of the hydrogen‐fuelled vehicles option is the intricate refuelling stations that vehicles will require. This study examines the practical use of hydrogen fuel within the internal combustion engine (ICE)‐powered long‐haul heavy‐duty trucking vehicles. Specifically it appraises the techno‐ economic feasibility of constructing a network of long‐haul truck refuelling stations using hydrogen fuel across Canada. Hydrogen fuel is chosen as an option for this study due to its low carbon emissions rate compared to diesel. This study also explores various operational methods including variable technology integration levels and truck traffic flows truck and pipeline delivery of hydrogen to stations and the possibility of producing hydrogen onsite. The proposed models created for this work suggest important parameters for economic development such as capital costs for station construction the selling price of fuel and the total investment cost for the infrastructure of a nation‐ wide refuelling station. Results showed that the selling price of hydrogen gas pipeline delivery op‐ tion is more economically stable. Specifically it was found that at 100% technology integration the range in selling prices was between 8.3 and 25.1 CAD$/kg. Alternatively at 10% technology integration the range was from 12.7 to 34.1 CAD$/kg. Moreover liquid hydrogen which is delivered by trucks generally had the highest selling price due to its very prohibitive storage costs. However truck‐delivered hydrogen stations provided the lowest total investment cost; the highest is shown by pipe‐delivered hydrogen and onsite hydrogen production processes using high technology integration methods. It is worth mentioning that once hydrogen technology is more developed and deployed the refuelling infrastructure cost is likely to decrease considerably. It is expected that the techno‐economic model developed in this work will be useful to design and optimize new and more efficient hydrogen refuelling stations for any ICE vehicles or fuel cell vehicles.

In automotive applications the operational parameters for fuel cell (FC) systems can vary over a wide range. To analyze their impact on fuel cell degradation an automotive size single cell was operated under realistic working conditions. The parameter sets were extracted from the FC system modelling based on on-road customer data. The parameter variation included simultaneous variation of the FC load gas pressures cell temperature stoichiometries and relative humidity. Current density distributions and the overall cell voltage were recorded in real time during the tests. The current densities were low at the geometric anode gas outlet and high at the anode gas inlet. After electrochemical tests post mortem analysis was conducted on the membrane electrode assemblies using scanning electron microscopy. The ex-situ analysis showed significant cathode carbon corrosion in areas associated with low current densities. This suggests that fuel starvation close to the anode outlet is the origin of the cathode electrode degradation. The results of the numerical simulations reveal high relative humidity at that region and therefore water flooding is assumed to cause local anode fuel starvation. Even though the hydrogen oxidation reaction has low kinetic overpotentials “local availability” of H₂ plays a significant role in maintaining a homogeneous current density distribution and thereby in local degradation of the cathode catalyst layer. The described phenomena occurred while the overall cell voltage remained above 0.3 V. This indicates that only voltage monitoring of fuel cell systems does not contain straightforward information about this type of degradation.

The cost reduction of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) is very important for the popularization of hydrogen vehicles. This paper proposes an optimized operation algorithm based on hydrogen energy demand estimation for on-site hydrogen refueling stations. Firstly the user’s hydrogen demand was estimated based on the simulation of their hydrogenation behavior. Secondly mixed integer linear programming method was used to optimize the operation of the hydrogen refueling station to minimize the unit hydrogen energy cost by using the peak–valley difference of the electricity price. We then used three typical scenario cases to evaluate the optimized operation method. The results show that the optimized operation method proposed in this paper can effectively reduce the rated configuration of electrolyzer and storage tank for HRS and can significantly reduce the unit hydrogen energy cost considering the construction cost compared with the traditional method. Therefore the optimization operation method of a local hydrogen production and hydrogen refueling station proposed in this paper can reduce the cost of a hydrogen refueling station and accelerate the popularization of hydrogen energy vehicles. Finally the scope of application of the proposed optimization method and the influence of the variation of the electricity price curve and the unit cost of the electrolyzer are discussed.

With the rapid development of hydrogen production by water electrolysis the coupling between the electricity-hydrogen system has become closer providing an effective way to consume surplus new energy generation. As a form of centralized management of distributed energy resources virtual power plants can aggregate the integrated energy production and consumption segments in a certain region and participate in electricity market transactions as a single entity to enhance overall revenue. Based on this this paper proposes an optimal scheduling model of an electricity-hydrogen coupling virtual power plant (EHC-VPP) considering hydrogen load response relying on hydrogen to ammonia as a flexibly adjustable load-side resource in the EHC-VPP to enable the VPP to participate in the day-ahead energy market to maximize benefits. In addition this paper also considers the impact of the carbon emission penalty to practice the green development concept of energy saving and emission reduction. To validate the economy of the proposed optimization scheduling method in this paper the optimization scheduling results under three different operation scenarios are compared and analyzed. The results show that considering the hydrogen load response and fully exploiting the flexibility resources of the EHC-VPP can further reduce the system operating cost and improve the overall operating efficiency.

Gas systems can provide considerable flexibility in integrated energy systems to accommodate hydrogen produced from Power-to-Hydrogen units using excess volatile renewable energy generation. To use the flexibility in integrated energy systems while ensuring a secure and reliable system operation gas system operators need to accurately and easily analyze the effects of varying hydrogen levels on the dynamic gas behavior and vice versa. Existing methods for hydrogen tracking however either solve the hydrogen propagation and dynamic gas behavior separately or must cope with a large inaccuracy. Hence existing methods do not allow an accurate and coupled analysis of gas systems in integrated energy systems considering varying hydrogen levels. This paper proposes a calorific-value-gradient method which can accurately track the propagation of varying hydrogen levels in a gas system even with large simulation time increments of up to one hour. The new method is joined and simultaneously solved with an implicit finite difference scheme describing the transient gas behavior in a single equation system in a coupled Newton–Raphson gas flow calculation. As larger simulation time increments can be chosen without reducing the accuracy the computation time can be strongly reduced compared to existing Euler-based methods. With its high accuracy and its coupled approach this paper provides gas system operators a method to accurately analyze how the propagation of hydrogen affects the entire gas system. With its coupled approach the presented method can enhance the investigation of integrated energy systems as the transient gas behavior and varying hydrogen propagation of the gas system can be easily included in such analyses.

Climate change and air quality concerns have pushed clean energy up the global agenda. As we switch over to new cleaner technologies and fuels our experience of using power heat and transport are going to change transforming the way we live work and get from A to B. Explore this guide to find out what hydrogen is how it is made transported and used what the experience would be like in the home for transport and for businesses and discover what the future of hydrogen might be.  

Visit the Energy Institute website for more information

Hydrogen is expected to be a next-generation energy source that does not emit carbon dioxide but when used as a fuel the issue is the increase in the amount of NOx that is caused by the increase in flame temperature. In this study we experimentally investigated NOx emissions rate when hydrogen was burned in a hydrocarbon gas burner which is used in a wide temperature range. As a result of the experiments the amount of NOx when burning hydrogen in a nozzle mixed burner was twice as high as when burning city gas. However by increasing the flow velocity of the combustion air the amount of NOx could be reduced. In addition by reducing the number of combustion air nozzles rather than decreasing the diameter of the air nozzles a larger recirculation flow could be formed into the furnace and the amount of NOx could be reduced by up to 51%. Furthermore the amount of exhaust gas recirculation was estimated from the reduction rate of NOx and the validity was confirmed by the relationship between adiabatic flame temperature and NOx calculated from the equilibrium calculation by chemical kinetics simulator software.

The telecommunication sector plays a significant role in shaping the global economy and the way people share information and knowledge. At present the telecommunication sector is liable for its energy consumption and the amount of emissions it emits in the environment. In the context of off-grid telecommunication applications off-grid base stations (BSs) are commonly used due to their ability to provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. However in the past the off-grid BSs usually relied on emission-intensive power supply solutions such as diesel generators. In this review paper various types of solutions (including in particular the sustainable solutions) for powering BSs are discussed. The key aspects in designing an ideal power supply solution are reviewed and these mainly include the pre-feasibility study and the thermal management of BSs which comprise heating and cooling of the BS shelter/cabinets and BS electronic equipment and power supply components. The sizing and optimization approaches used to design the BSs’ power supply systems as well as the operational and control strategies adopted to manage the power supply systems are also reviewed in this paper.

The study focuses on converting current industrial natural gas heating technologies to use 100% hydrogen considering the evidence which must be available before a decision on the UK’s decarbonisation pathway for heating could be made. The aim of the study is to assess the technical requirements and challenges associated with industrial hydrogen conversion and estimate the associated costs and timeframes.

This report and any attachment is freely available on the Hy4Heat website here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.

The aim of the presented article is to analyse the influence of synthesis gas composition on the power economic and internal parameters of an atmospheric two-cylinder spark-ignition internal combustion engine (displacement of 686 cm3 ) designed for a micro-cogeneration unit. Synthesis gases produced mainly from waste contain combustible components as their basic material (methane hydrogen and carbon monoxide) as well as inert gases (carbon dioxide and nitrogen). A total of twelve synthesis gases were analysed that fall into the category of medium-energy gases with lower heating value in the range from 8 to 12 MJ/kg. All of the resulting parameters from the operation of the combustion engine powered by synthesis gases were compared with the reference fuel methane. The results show a decrease in the performance parameters for all operating loads and an increase in hourly fuel consumption. Specifically for the operating speed of the micro-cogeneration unit (1500 L/min) the decrease in power parameters was in the range of 7.1–23.5%; however the increase in hourly fuel consumption was higher by 270% to 420%. The decrease in effective efficiency ranged from 0.4 to 4.6% which in percentage terms represented a decrease from 1.3% to 14.5%. The process of fuel combustion was most strongly influenced by the proportion of hydrogen and inert gases in the mixture. It can be concluded that setting up the synthesis gas production in the waste gasification process in order to achieve optimum performance and economic parameters of the combustion engine for a micro cogeneration unit has an influential role and is of crucial importance.

This latest Hydrogen Council report shows that the cost of hydrogen solutions will fall sharply within the next decade – and sooner than previously expected. As scale up of hydrogen production distribution equipment and component manufacturing continues cost is projected to decrease by up to 50% by 2030 for a wide range of applications making hydrogen competitive with other low-carbon alternatives and in some cases even conventional options.

Significant cost reductions are expected across different hydrogen applications. For more than 20 of them such as long-distance and heavy-duty transportation industrial heating and heavy industry feedstock which together comprise roughly 15% of global energy consumption the hydrogen route appears the decarbonisation option of choice – a material opportunity.

The report attributes this trajectory to scale-up that positively impacts the three main cost drivers:

• Strong fall in the cost of producing low carbon and renewable hydrogen;
• Lower distribution and refuelling costs thanks to higher load utilisation and scale effect on infrastructure utilisation; and
• Dramatic drop in the cost of components for end-use equipment under scaling up of manufacturing.

To deliver on this opportunity supporting policies will be required in key geographies together with investment support of around $70 billion in the lead up to 2030 in order to scale up and achieve hydrogen competitiveness. While this figure is sizable it accounts for less than 5% of annual global spending on energy. For comparison support provided to renewables in Germany totalled roughly $30 billion in 2019.

The study is based on real industry data with 25000 data points gathered and analysed from 30 companies using a rigorous methodology. The data was collected and analytical support provided by McKinsey & Company and it represents the entire hydrogen value chain across four key geographies (US Europe Japan/Korea and China). Data was also reviewed by an independent advisory group comprised of recognised hydrogen and energy transition experts.

You can download the full report from the Hydrogen Council website here

The executive summary can be found here

This UKERC Research Atlas Landscape provides an overview of the competencies and publicly funded activities in fuel cell research development and demonstration (RD&D) in the UK. It covers the main funding streams research providers infrastructure networks and UK participation in international activities.

The report calls for a focus on new advanced alternative fuels in particular synthetic kerosene (efuels) which have the capacity to substantially reduce emissions and be scaled up to meet the fuel demands of the sector.

For aviation to reach zero emissions sustainable advanced fuels are needed to replace fossil kerosene currently used by the sector. The European Green Deal (EGD) includes a legislative proposal which would bring about a long overdue development and uptake of such fuels for the sector that legislative proposal is now being developed under the EU’s ReFuelEU initiative. However this initiative will only succeed if its support is limited to those fuels which can truly deliver emission reductions and which can be scaled up sustainably to meet the demand from the aviation sector. The paper recommends how such objectives can be achieved.

The ReFuelEU proposal should focus on these fuels with an ambitious programme combining mandates with financial support so that Europe's aviation sector is put on a pathway to net zero emissions.

Link to document download on Transport & Environment Website

As the world looks to recover from the impact of coronavirus on our lives livelihoods and economies we have the chance to build back better: to invest in making the UK a global leader in green technologies.

The plan focuses on increasing ambition in the following areas:

• advancing offshore wind
• driving the growth of low carbon hydrogen
• delivering new and advanced nuclear power
• accelerating the shift to zero emission vehicles
• green public transport cycling and walking
• ‘jet zero’ and green ships
• greener buildings
• investing in carbon capture usage and storage
• protecting our natural environment
• green finance and innovation

The ten point plan will mobilise £12 billion of government investment and potentially 3 times as much from the private sector to create and support up to 250000 green jobs.

Improving energy system modelling capabilities can directly affect the quality of applied studies. However some modelling trade-offs are necessary as the computational capacity and data availability are constrained. In this paper we demonstrate modelling trade-offs resulting from the modification in the resolution of four modelling capabilities namely transitional scope European electricity interconnection hourly demand-side flexibility description and infrastructure representation. We measure the cost of increasing resolution in each capability in terms of computational time and several energy system modelling indicators notably system costs emission prices and electricity import and export levels. The analyses are performed in a national-level integrated energy system model with a linear programming approach that includes the hourly electricity dispatch with European nodes. We determined that reducing the transitional scope from seven to two periods can reduce the computational time by 75% while underestimating the objective function by only 4.6%. Modelers can assume a single European Union node that dispatches electricity at an aggregated level which underestimates the objective function by 1% while halving the computational time. Furthermore the absence of shedding and storage flexibility options can increase the curtailed electricity by 25% and 8% respectively. Although neglecting flexibility options can drastically decrease the computational time it can increase the sub-optimality by 31%. We conclude that an increased resolution in modelling flexibility options can significantly improve the results. While reducing the computational time by half the lack of electricity and gas infrastructure representation can underestimate the objective function by 4% and 6% respectively.

In order to achieve gradual but timely decarbonisation of the transport sector it is essential to evaluate which types of vehicles provide a suitable environmental performance while allowing the use of hydrogen as a fuel. This work compares the environmental life-cycle performance of three different passenger cars fuelled by hydrogen: a fuel cell electric vehicle an internal combustion engine car and a hybrid electric vehicle. Besides two vehicles that use hydrogen in a mixture with natural gas or gasoline were considered. In all cases hydrogen produced by wind power electrolysis was assumed. The resultant life-cycle profiles were benchmarked against those of a compressed natural gas car and a hybrid electric vehicle fed with natural gas. Vehicle infrastructure was identified as the main source of environmental burdens. Nevertheless the three pure hydrogen vehicles were all found to be excellent decarbonisation solutions whereas vehicles that use hydrogen mixed with natural gas or gasoline represent good opportunities to encourage the use of hydrogen in the short term while reducing emissions compared to ordinary vehicles.

As fossil fuels continue to be extracted and used issues such as environmental pollution and energy scarcity are surfacing. For the transportation industry the best way to achieve the goal of “carbon neutrality” is to research efficient power systems and develop new alternative fuels. As the world’s largest product of chemicals ammonia is a new renewable fuel with good combustion energy. It can be used as an alternative fuel to reduce carbon emissions because of its proven production process low production and transportation costs safe storage the absence of carbon-containing compounds in its emissions and its future recyclability. This paper firstly introduces the characteristics of ammonia fuel engine and its problems; then it summarizes the effects of various ammonia-blended fuels on the combustion and emission characteristics of the engine from the combustion problem of ammonia-blended engine; then the fuel storage of ammonia-blended hydrogen is discussed the feasibility of hydrogen production instead of hydrogen storage is introduced.

Decarbonizing the current steel and power sectors through the development of the hydrogen direct-reduction iron ore–electric arc furnace route and the 100% hydrogen-fired gas turbine cycle is crucial. The current study focuses on three clusters of research works. The first cluster covers the investigation of the mass and energy balance of the route and the subsequent application of these values in experiments to optimize the reduction yield of iron ore. In the second cluster the existing gas turbine unit was selected for the complete replacement of natural gas with hydrogen and for finding the most optimal mass and energy balance in the cycle through an Aspen HYSYS model. In addition the chemical kinetics in the hydrogen combustion process were simulated using Ansys Chemkin Pro to research the emissions. In the last cluster a comparative economic analysis was conducted to identify the levelized cost of production of the route and the levelized cost of electricity of the cycle. The findings in the economic analysis provided good insight into the details of the capital and operational expenditures of each industrial sector in understanding the impact of each kg of hydrogen consumed in the plants. These findings provide a good basis for future research on reducing the cost of hydrogen-based steel and power sectors. Moreover the outcomes of this study can also assist ongoing large-scale hydrogen and ammonia projects in Uzbekistan in terms of designing novel hydrogen-based industries with cost-effective solutions.

Only emissions-free vehicles which include battery electric (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell trucks (FCEVs) can provide for a credible long-term pathway towards the full decarbonisation of the road freight sector. This document lays out the methodology and assumptions which were used to calculate the total cost of ownership (TCO) of the two vehicle technologies for regional delivery and long-haul truck applications. It also discusses other criteria such as refuelling and recharging times as well as potential payload losses.

Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website

A major transformation and redesign of the global energy system is required towards decarbonisation and to achieve the Paris Agreement targets. This Grand Transition is a complex pressing issue where global joint efforts and system solutions are essential; with hydrogen being one of them.<br/>Hydrogen has the potential to be a powerful effective accelerator towards a low-carbon energy system capable of addressing multiple energy challenges: from facilitating the massive integration of renewables and decarbonisation of energy production to energy transportation in a zero-carbon energy economy to electrification of end uses.